





■ 



m 










Class 

Book » C» \ l 3 



J* JR ^0 



/ 



To 
Professor and Mrs. Frank M. McMurry 






PREFACE 

Some experiments conducted by the writer a few 
years ago gave evidence that teachers were not clear in 
their own minds as to what they desired their pupils to 
do when they studied their lessons. There were strong 
indications that they wanted the contents of textbooks 
•memorized. Aside from memorizing, there was little 
suggested that was definite. This lack of knowledge of 
the true nature of study indicates a lack of knowledge 
of the nature of subject-matter, of the purposes it 
serves, and also of the various forms of teaching 
through which the ends of education are accomplished. 
Experience both with teachers in training and with 
teachers in their own classrooms confirms the idea that 
many are limited in their understanding of subject- 
matter and in their use of method. 

From the writer's close relation with the school- 
room has grown the attempt to remedy the situation 
just described. Both exposition and illustration have 
been employed. The many examples cited have been 
taken from actual lessons, hence they show what can 
be done. They are not free from error and weakness, 
and this fact should encourage those who seek to im- 
prove their own procedure. Perfection in the model 
studied arouses suspicion that it is not true to life and 
cannot be realized in actual practice. 



VI 



PREFACE 



It is perhaps not too strong a statement to say that 
the prevailing fault with teachers is that they go before 
their classes, day after day, without having definite 
aims in mind, and without having determined how 
they will teach the lessons. They have not decided 
whether they are to increase knowledge, to form hab- 
its, to influence feelings, or to establish some new rela- 
tions among ideas already known. The chapters here 
presented are intended to remedy this situation, and to 
help teachers decide definitely what the nature of each 
lesson is to be. 

The subject of lesson plans has been treated from 
two viewpoints. There is the complete plan for those 
who are in training, or for the teacher who wishes to 
work out an entire unit of subject-matter. There is 
also the condensed plan for those who must cover 
several lessons every day, and who cannot possibly 
amplify the plan for each recitation period. Teachers 
must learn to do in planning what they expect their 
pupils to do in studying, — see the main points and 
keep them in mind. 

The author's indebtedness to Professor John Dewey 
for his conception of education will be apparent to the 
reader. It is freely acknowledged. The services of the 
many who have contributed lesson plans, or who have 
taught the lessons which have been reported, are recog- 
nized with gratitude. To Professor F. M. McMurry 
thanks are due for suggestive criticism. Grateful appre- 
ciation is hereby rendered to Professor H. A. Suzzallo, 



PREFACE vii 

whose counsel helped to determine the character of the 
book. He must share largely the responsibility for the 
fact that it was written at all. 

LIDA B. EARHART. 

New York, 
October 26, 1914. 



CONTENTS 

Introduction. By Henry Suzzallo xi 

I. Subject-Matter: Its Nature, Development, 

and Purposes 1 

II. Where Education must begin . . . .16 

III. What School Education should accomplish 22 

IV. Means which aid in Education ... 28 

V. Exercises which aim at the Discovery of 
General Knowledge. The Inductive 
Lesson 38 

VI. Lessons in which General Knowledge is 

employed. The Deductive Lesson . . 55 

VII. The Study of Objects and Activities . . 70 

VIII. The Assignment of Lessons .... 80 

IX. The Recitation Exercise , 93 

X. The Arousal and Guidance of Appreciation 109 

XI. Socializing Exercises >/ 130 

C XII. The Formation of Habits and the Increase 

of Skill 150 

XHI. School Exercises which involve Review . 178 

XIV. Training Pupils to study 192 

XV. Making Lesson Plans . . .... 220 

Appendix: Suggestions for Lesson Plans . . 237 

Outline 265 

Index 271 



INTRODUCTION 

A new volume on the art of teaching is here pre- 
sented. It is offered to the professional public in the 
belief that its discussion of the theory of proper class- 
room procedure will be more helpful to the average 
practitioner than the works hitherto available. Large 
as have been the contributions of the pedagogical texts 
published within the last decade, the perpetual need 
of a simpler and more practical statement remains. 
There is, too, the necessity for incorporating in book 
form such new facts as have been revealed by the 
numerous inquiries and experiments of the last few 
years. The present volume is, therefore, a reinterpre- 
tation of teaching procedure, stated, as far as possible, 
in the current and familiar phraseology of ordinary 
teachers, yet taking into account the recent investiga- 
tions of our ablest educational thinkers. It offers a 
combination of scholarship and practicality rarely 
found in teachers' texts. 

The teachers of the primary school will be quick to 
appreciate the worth of the pedagogical principles here 
elucidated. Their experience with progressive practice 
is now ample enough to make them sense fully the 
importance of generalizations which take modern 
experimentation into account. They will welcome a 



xii INTRODUCTION 

systematic summary which clarifies many obscure 
points, resolves long-debated issues, and shows the 
practical bearing of abstract laws. 

Teachers in secondary schools will find in this trea- 
tise much that is novel. They have so recently turned 
from traditional practice to scientific theory that they 
will find more that is suggestive in this volume than 
their colleagues from the lower schools. In spite of 
the fact that teaching difficulties have been multiply- 
ing with such great rapidity as to make help welcome 
from any direction, the high-school instructor has 
been repelled by current texts because these have been 
written almost exclusively from the point of view of 
elementary school practice. He will be glad to read a 
book which meets him halfway. 

There was a time, not long since, when the institu- 
tion of teaching method was scantily accepted even 
among elementary school teachers. Now that recogni- 
tion is won there, the battleground shifts to the teach- 
ers of our secondary schools. It may be said that we 
are just at the beginning of the movement to prove the 
worth of modern pedagogical procedure to the higher 
schools. An inquiry into the misconceptions which 
must be fought will do much to indicate the difficulties 
of that campaign. 

An initial misconception which will be encountered 
is the belief of many teachers that "there is nothing in 
teaching method; that one has only to know his subject 
thoroughly to teach it well." This is a view widely 



INTRODUCTION x iii 

held by instructors in high schools, more particularly 
those trained in the universities. It is very largely the 
reflection of the attitude of their college teachers. 

To give the origin of such a prejudice is to offer the 
best criticism of it. The university instructor does not 
appreciate the importance of teaching methods merely 
because his greatest difficulties do not lie in this par- 
ticular direction. The students that he teaches are 
not far removed from the maturity of his own mind. 
The gap to be bridged is slight. His own scientific 
organization of thought almost suffices to reach them. 
At least his partial failure with a traditional college 
clientele is not dramatic enough to attract his atten- 
tion. But he is very much concerned with advancing 
the margins of knowledge and with acquiring the latest 
known truth. Here he finds his major problem. His 
chief difficulty is to equip himself with content. Hence 
with him, scholarship is everything and teaching pro- 
cess nothing at all. His prejudice against any large 
emphasis upon modes of presenting knowledge is 
merely an expression of his accidental state of mind. 
It is a naive generalization from his personal situa- 
tion. 

The case is quite the contrary among primary 
teachers. They were the first to recognize and develop 
a theory of teaching method. The facts and skills with 
which a teacher of little children is concerned are 
so elementary as to be a common possession among 
adults. Scholarship is not a problem, but its presenta- 



xiv INTRODUCTION 

tion is. The distance between the teacher's sober and 
abstract mind and the playful, active, and concrete 
interests of boys and girls is great. The chief problem 
is to bridge the gap. Thus artfulness in teaching 
becomes the major task. Hence the readiness of prim- 
ary teachers to believe in the magical properties of 
method and device. They, too, are merely expressing 
their own accidental attitude of mind, judging naively 
from a special case. 

The secondary teacher's midway position between 
the college and the primary school creates his dilemma. 
By situation, scholarship is to him more than to the 
elementary teacher, and teaching methods more than 
to the college professor. Tradition and training have 
allied him with university men; and in the past he has 
shared their points of view. But the increasing horde 
of unselected youth that comes to him from the ele- 
mentary school now creates difficulties which make 
him more and more sympathetic with the elementary 
school's methods of adjustment. Relaxing his tradi- 
tional over-confidence in mere scholarly attainment 
and developing a new tolerance for the mental life of 
youth, he turns hopefully toward the promises of peda- 
gogical theory. Perhaps when a decade or more has 
passed and his mind has assimilated the new technique 
of modern teaching, he will reveal, better than the 
teachers above or below him, that true synthesis of 
scholarship and teaching method which every teacher 
should bear in mind. 



INTRODUCTION 



xv 



But teachers, whatever their location in the educa- 
tional system, have been prone to rely on too narrow 
a range of teaching methods. If they but saw that 
each teaching method has only a relative worth, they 
would be more versatile. A method of teaching is only 
a means to an end. Modify the purpose or the condi- 
tion of operation, and the procedure should change. 
Yet teachers have shown little capacity for remember- 
ing this fact. Traditional methods, born of the need to 
teach a dead language, have been transferred bodily 
to the teaching of a live mode of speech. What has 
been used in spelling has been copied in geography. 
Drill, with a proper sanction in one place, is indis- 
criminately applied. Objectification, of supreme value 
with beginners in any domain, is prolonged to the 
point where it interferes with effective thought. We 
need to know that every method is a specialized in- 
strument, and just because it has one great strength 
carries many incompetencies. It must be used in place, 
for its own particular condition and end. In the whole 
range of school activities it must be supplemented by 
many other special means. There is no one best method 
for school teachers. Each procedure is best for a specific 
purpose or condition, and many are required to meet 
all the variations in school life. Hence the advent of a 
better teaching technique will be hastened if we admit, 
at the outset, that all special means of teaching have 
only a particular worth; that the teacher must be ver- 
satile in the use of methods; and that the best that 



xvi INTRODUCTION 

theory can do is to suggest the spirit and the law of the 
teaching adjustment and tp f £^scyibe those types of 
teaching which |n Teal practice are found only in 
infinite variation. 

Henky Suzzallo. 

Teachers College, 

Columbia University, 

December, 191&. 



TYPES OF TEACHING 



SUBJECT-MATTER: ITS NATURE, DEVELOPMENT, 
AND PURPOSES 

Need of understanding what subject-matter is 

The expression " subject-matter " is frequently as- 
sociated with that body of knowledge which is to be 
taught from books only. \ The method of teaching it 
often consists of having the contents of books read or 
memorized with but little consideration given to their 
meaning or worth. Since an understanding of what 
subject-matter is, and a clear view of the purposes it 
serves, have a strong influence upon the methods 
employed in teaching it, it may be worth while to be- 
gin our discussion of methods with a review of that 
to which the method is to be applied. 

Where subject-matter first exists 

In the first place, subject-matter always exists in 
some form outside of books before it is committed to 
book form. This has been true of the past, and it holds 
true of the present time. Through accident or design, 
through the exigencies of life or by reflective thought, 
new ideas, new ways of acting and of doing things, have 



2 TYPES OF TEACHING 

come into existence. The books on primitive life 
which have been published within recent years have 
put before us in greatly condensed periods the progress 
of man from stage to stage of his material and intel- 
lectual development. Tormented by hunger, he learned 
how to capture and kill the wild animals, how to till 
the soil and care for his crops. The presence of foes 
compelled him to devise means of protection for him- 
self and of destruction for them. New forms of dan- 
ger necessitated the invention of new modes of self- 
protection. A recent magazine article by a well-known 
writer * shows us this thought clearly. In the Place of 
Departed Spirits, one who had preyed upon his fellows 
with teeth and hands cried aloud for judgment upon 
the man who had killed him by throwing stones. The 
thrower of stones pleaded the necessity of devising 
this means of self-defense, and in turn denounced the 
man who, by means of bow and arrow, had rendered 
stone-throwing futile. The archer, in turn, urged his 
need of protecting himself from the stone-thrower, 
and denounced the use of armor and battle-axes which 
had made his mode of warfare of no avail. The man 
in armor complained of the invention of gunpowder; 
and so the story proceeds, showing how stern neces- 
sity had compelled people to think and to act and to 
advance in proficiency. 

One tries vainly to imagine how the discovery was 

1 Kipling, "The Benefactors," in The American Magazine, vol. 
74, p. 258. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 3 

made that vegetable and animal fibers can be twisted 
into threads, nor do we know how or by whom the first 
spindle was invented. From twisting with the fingers 
to twisting with a cleft stick weighted with clay was a 
long step. From the cleft stick to the metal spindle 
was another stage of progress. From the spindle to 
the spinning wheel was a tremendous advance; and 
the invention of the spinning jenny is so great an ac- 
complishment that the simple spindle seems utterly 
insignificant; yet both are responses to a fundamental 
need of man, — the need of clothing. 

Many forms of thought and action 

As man's needs were many, his activities leading to 
their satisfaction were many. He constantly devised 
and invented processes, tools, weapons, means of com- 
munication, of transportation, of recreation, of amuse- 
ment, of religious worship, and the like. His reflec- 
tions as to his own origin and the source of all that he 
saw about him, his relation to the Supreme Being, his 
duty to his fellow men, led him to a simple philosophy. 
Barter led to a means of computing. With increasing 
population came specialization of labor and the growth 
of manufacturing, as well as a host of other activities 
suited to the new conditions. 

Need of transmitting modes of activity 

But once having been attained, these thought prod- 
ucts and these various modes of activity had to be 



4 TYPES OF TEACHING 

communicated to others, especially to the young of 
the race, in order that these might profit by them and 
might in turn participate helpfully in the affairs of the 
family, tribe, or nation. 

What subject-matter was originally 

These various ways of doing things and of thinking 
about things which were passed on from the older 
members of society to the younger constituted the 
subject-matter of instruction. Thus the shaping of 
arrowheads, the manner of snaring wild game, of catch- 
ing fish, of making clothing, of building shelters, of 
tracking enemies, — these and many other processes, 
in addition to a certain fund of knowledge, traditions, 
and superstitions, which had accumulated from re- 
motest times, made up the body of subject-matter im- 
parted to the rising generation. By means of it, the 
young of the tribe were taught how to preserve life, 
how to destroy the foe; were taught what feelings they 
should have toward the tribal enemies, what their 
duties to their own social unit were, what the ex- 
planations of natural phenomena were, how they 
should regard the Great Power which manifested 
itself in the world about them, and how they should 
worship it. 

It was life with its processes, its arts, and its indus- 
tries; life with its freight of cultivated beliefs, feelings, 
and ideas, which was handed down as a precious her- 
itage from one generation to another. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 5 

The integral nature of subject-matter 

This heritage, thus transmitted, was a closely inter- 
woven whole, not a mass of distinct, disconnected 
parts. Subject-matter was a unit and was not divided 
into separate subjects such as are to-day listed in all 
courses of study. This was doubtless due to the fact 
that the teaching was done in connection with the 
everyday life of the young people and was not con- 
ducted in a separate place, at a special time, and by 
people who devoted themselves exclusively to the art 
of teaching. It was taught while in the very process of 
serving its intrinsic or direct function, 1 which is the 
function which it serves in the world of life aside from 
the scholastic world of classes, books, and schoolrooms. 

Effect of books upon subject-matter 

Nor was the matter to be taught cooped up in books 
as is now so generally the case. It is conceivable that the 
introduction of books tended to set apart that which 
was taught from its direct association with life and 
its processes, to render it fixed and less susceptible to 
change, and ultimately to result in a body of knowledge 
more or less isolated from the world of active life and re- 
garded by some as being more valuable on that account. 

Subject-matter modifiable 

Subject-matter in its original place, in the world 
outside of schools and books, is subject to modifica- 
1 W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap. in. 



6 TYPES OF TEACHING 

tion. The conditions which called it into existence 
may pass; hence the need of employing certain knowl- 
edge or processes may pass; and, as far as social usage 
is concerned, certain units of subject-matter have 
thus ceased to exist. A textbook in arithmetic, pub- 
lished in the early days of our national life, required 
the pupils to find the value in Maryland money of a 
certain sum of Massachusetts money. With uniform 
coinage, such problems are useless. With modern 
banking conditions, sight drafts of a kind once em- 
ployed are no longer necessary; and with business 
transacted through stock companies, partnership with 
the time element becomes obsolete. A military 7 acad- 
emy which spent much of its time teaching the modes 
of warfare employed even a few hundred years ago 
would be considered a poor agency to prepare men for 
the national defense. A consideration of other forms 
of activity will reveal similar changes due to altered 
conditions. 

Not only is it true that some forms of subject-mat- 
ter fall into disuse because they are no longer necessi- 
tated by conditions ; it is also true that they are changed 
and improved by the genius of man. Chemistry is 
very different from the alchemy which preceded it, 
and astronomy is a great advance upon astrology. 
Long division and the use of the decimal system are 
not such ancient history but that we may see how supe- 
rior they are to the methods which antedated them. 
Even a little reflection upon the arts and industries of 



SUBJECT-MATTER 7 

modern life will convince one that they have been greatly 
altered from their original form by man's intellectual 
activity; and while some may question whether all 
have been improved, there can be no doubt that in 
most cases, at least, the change has been for the better. 

The development of new subject-matter 

We have seen that certain modes of activity and 
certain beliefs have been quite outgrown, and that 
others have been modified, improved, and made to 
suit changing conditions. In addition to these varia- 
tions, new ideas and new forms of activity have come 
into being, or are at the present time in the process of 
becoming. The whole science of aeronautics is still 
in the formative stage. Chemistry extends its bounds 
from year to year. Electrical engineers present new 
accomplishments constantly. Philosophy takes now 
this turn and now that, and refuses to remain fixed. 
The fields of sociology and economics are just fairly 
opening up, and the next few years will doubtless see 
great development in them. The use of the turbine 
engine has already greatly affected transportation, 
and the possibilities of the monorail car with its gyro- 
scope are not fully developed. The wireless tele- 
phone and telegraph are still so recent as to be ranked 
with the marvelous. In short, it is difficult to think 
of any field of human thought or action which is not 
changing in one or more of the three ways above 
described. Either some part becomes obsolete and is 



8 TYPES OF TEACHING 

discontinued, or some part is adapted to altered needs 
and conditions, or entirely new elements are added 
from time to time as human thought faces and over- 
comes new situations, or sees the possibility of meeting 
old ones in new ways. 

The subject-matter of the schools and changing social 
conditions 

Are the modifications which society works out re- 
flected in the material taught in the schools? Is the 
intrinsic, or direct, function of subject-matter the 
dominant one? In the first place, have all the obsolete 
processes been discontinued? An examination of the 
books used by pupils would reveal the presence of 
some material and some processes which are either 
quite behind the times, or which are employed by so 
few people that it can hardly be considered the func- 
tion of schools meant for all the people to impart 
them. We still persist with the extraction of cube and 
square roots; with cases in bank discount which in- 
volve finding the time or the rate of discount; and 
with tables of denominate numbers which are em- 
ployed by a limited class who, after their public school 
course is ended, must make special preparation for 
their careers. The schools continue to insist upon cer- 
tain uses of the marks of punctuation which business 
people no longer follow. 1 

1 See The Teachers College Record, vol. iv, No. 2, for further 
suggestions in regard to subject-matter which no longer has in- 
trinsic value. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 9 

Frequently the schools are slow in introducing the 
changes which are an established part of social usage. 
We might expect some lagging behind until the new 
processes have been found adequate and worthy, but 
even after proof of worth and usefulness has been es- 
tablished, the schools still fail to introduce the newer 
forms. Business employs interest tables, typewriters, 
counting-machines, and other devices for saving time 
and securing accuracy. How many schools teach their 
use, or see to it that their pupils know that such de- 
vices exist? How many plasterers, paperhangers, and 
carpenters make their calculations as do the pupils 
in our schools? What age of literary production is 
represented by the readers and supplementary mate- 
rial furnished to the pupils, in our elementary schools 
especially? People outside of school are much inter- 
ested at present in getting acquainted with the world's 
best music through the mechanical devices which 
make this possible. How many schools are still con- 
tent to do nothing in music except to teach note-read- 
ing and such songs as the pupils themselves can render? 
How many are affected either in material or method 
by the present great musical movement? There was 
a time when young people went to work at some 
business or trade in which they secured their technical 
training during a period of apprenticeship. Society 
demands a different plan, in these later days, and the 
educational world is attempting to respond. The 
schools must prepare for the occupations at the pres- 



10 TYPES OF TEACHING 

ent time, and they are much engrossed in trying to 
catch up with the social requirement. 

One result of this technical teaching in the schools 
will be to bring the schools back again into that close 
contact with life which has for some time been lacking. 
The highly technical schools have kept this contact, 
and instead of falling behind in subject-matter, they 
have forged ahead of social usage and have given the 
world most valuable assistance. It is only necessary 
to refer to the magnificent work of our schools of agri- 
culture to justify this statement. 

Why the intrinsic function of subject-matter is not 
made more prominent in the schools. 

(a) One reason why the schools are somewhat behind 
the times in the processes and ideas which they teach 
has already been stated. It is because the schools lead 
an existence isolated to a certain extent from partici- 
pation in the affairs of everyday life. The teacher's 
calling demands much time and energy, and compara- 
tively few people combat the inertia which tends to 
keep things constantly in the same state. A teacher 
needs extended and varied experience, keen insight, 
and almost endless patience in order to keep pace 
with social advance and to keep her classes in touch 
with it, to say nothing of bringing them into intimate 
relation with existing conditions. 

(b) Another reason for the slowness with which 
changes in subject-matter are made, or for the lack 



SUBJECT-MATTER 11 

of change, is the idea which prevails with many people 
that the subject-matter in itself is not of great mo- 
ment. Its value lies in the effect produced upon the 
mind of the learners in the process of mastering it. 
They believe in the doctrine of discipline; consequently, 
subject-matter which at one time had a vital relation 
with the world's affairs is retained because of the value 
it possesses as a means of mental training. Many 
people urge the retention of obsolete processes in 
arithmetic because they afford excellent training in 
reasoning. The study of higher mathematics and of 
the classical languages has been strongly advocated 
for similar reasons. These subjects are represented 
as being peculiarly valuable for the mental training 
which they provide. In the elementary school, the 
finer intricacies of grammar have been insisted upon 
for the same reason. History and geography have 
been presented by many teachers, not so much that 
they might throw light upon the life of man, but in 
order that the imagination and the reasoning processes 
might be trained through them. 

There is no need of presenting obsolete material or 
processes, or situations and problems quite contrary 
to fact, or such as rarely occur, in order to cultivate 
the powers of reasoning, imagination, attention, per- 
severance, and other qualities of the mind. All these 
can be more effectively cultivated, and the learner at 
the same time can be brought into close touch with 
the life of to-day, by using material which is related 



n TYPES OF TEACHING 

to the environment of the school, to the lives and 
interests of the pupils and their families, and to the 
social interests and problems of the present time. 

It is well to remember, moreover, that a quality of 
the mind should be given exercise in as many different 
directions as possible and upon many occasions, if we 
wish it to become general in its activity. Reasoning, 
memory, politeness, truthfulness, and other desirable 
traits should be cultivated under many kinds of cir- 
cumstances, and exercised frequently, in order to ex- 
tend their range, and to increase the certainty of their 
use when needed. 1 

(c) Another reason for the static courses of study 
in the elementary and high schools is that they are 
dominated to some extent by the idea that the ele- 
mentary school must prepare for courses to be given 
in the high school, and that the high school must pre- 
pare for college. In consequence, much of the subject- 
matter is taught, not because it has intrinsic or direct 
value, but because it is preparatory in function. The 
Germans sometimes describe the study of Latin in 
their Gymnasia by pupils during the period between 
nine and fourteen years of age as resembling a trip 
through a tunnel. It leads somewhere, but the learner 
cannot see where. This description is true of other 
subjects than beginning Latin. They seem to the 
pupils to contain little value in themselves, the argu- 

1 William James, Talks to Teachers, chap, xn; E. L. Thorndike, 
Principles of Teaching, chap. xv. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 13 

ment urged being that they are necessary to the mas- 
tery of subjects to be presented later. Their value is 
thus preparatory rather than intrinsic. 

At the present time there is much discontent and 
agitation over the situation which requires so many 
pupils to spend time upon studies whose chief claim 
is that they prepare for higher schools, when so few 
of these pupils attend these higher schools. The 
effect of this movement will probably cause a radical 
change in the curricula of the lower schools. The 
preparatory subjects which are retained will no doubt 
be made to yield whatever value they possess that is 
intrinsic in nature. 

The pleasure element in subject-matter 

Several forms of subject-matter, possessing one or 
more of the functions already described, may, upon 
occasion, take on still another purpose. They may 
be regarded as accomplishments, and may be imparted 
to pupils not because they are in themselves useful, 
or disciplinary, or preparatory to other courses, but 
because they are ornamental in nature. Deportment, 
music, dancing, art, modern languages, and similar 
subjects, presented in so-called finishing schools, pos- 
sess this function. It is proper for people of certain 
rank or station in life to possess some knowledge of 
them. They adorn life; they add to social enjoyment; 
hence they are taught. They are not to be esteemed 
lightly because of the function they serve, since 



14 TYPES OF TEACHING 

pleasure is an end of education. On the contrary, it 
might be advisable to make more provision in our 
schools for those subjects which further the higher 
enjoyments of society, because it is natural for people 
to seek pleasure of some kind, and tastes in this direc- 
tion can be influenced and largely determined by 
training. The schools have here a duty which they 
possibly have not realized, and which they certainly 
have not fully performed. 

Summary. (1) Subject-matter represents ways of think- 
ing, feeling, or doing evolved by the race in the course of its 
development. (2) Subject-matter is modifiable. It may be- 
come obsolete because the necessity for its use has ceased to 
exist, or because a more adequate way of thinking, feeling, 
or acting has been evolved. Part of a certain form of 
subject-matter may be changed to suit changing conditions. 
New forms or units of subject-matter may come into exist- 
ence. (3) Subject-matter is more likely to experience these 
changes in actual social experience than in the schools be- 
cause the life of the schools is to a certain extent set apart 
from the conditions which modify or produce subject-matter. 
(4) Subject-matter serves various purposes or functions. Its 
function may be (a) intrinsic; (6) disciplinary; (c) prepara- 
tory; (d) decorative. 

References: John Dewey, School and Society. The child and 
the curriculum; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chapters 
ii-vi, inclusive. 

EXERCISES 

1. Give examples of subject-matter in five different subjects of the 
school curriculum which existed before it was put into a text- 
book. 

2. Make a list of ten situations or needs which compelled the mak- 
ing of subject-matter. 



SUBJECT-MATTER 15 

3. Name several ways by which subject-matter is passed on from 
one generation to another. 

4. What are some of the needs of the present time for which sub- 
ject-matter has not yet been provided? 

5. What objection have you to offer to the definition of subject- 
matter as a way of doing something or thinking about some- 
thing? 

6. Give at least one good argument for, and one against, the use of 
books as a means of imparting subject-matter. 

7. What changing social conditions can you mention for which the 
schools do not as yet provide? 

8. What can the schools do in practical ways to teach the intrinsic 
function of subject-matter? 

9.. Mention three subjects which are taught because they prepare 
the way for later subjects. Have these subjects any intrinsic 
value? 

10. What subject-matter did you ever study or teach because it was 
N supposed to result in mental discipline? Should you say that it 

accomplished this result? If you think it did, do you regard 
it as more effective for the purpose than subject-matter which 
has a place in actual practice outside of school? 

11. Do you object to teaching subjects because they give pleasure 
or are classed as accomplishments? Mention several subjects 
of this nature. What argument can be urged in favor of provid- 
ing for them in the course of study? 



n 

WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 

Ideas more or less complete and more or less organ- 
ized 

When children enter school, they are not only 
young in years, but they are also young in thought, in 
activity, in life in general. It is true that they have 
acquired a large store of ideas, but many of these are 
incorrect or incomplete. Very little organization, com- 
paratively speaking, has as yet taken place among the 
different mental states, and even that little is often 
found to be faulty. Of actual experience, accumu- 
lated by themselves, there is only a small store. They 
have had glimpses of only a few pages of the world's 
great volume, and have not fully comprehended those 
few. 

We never arrive at a stage where our ideas are com- 
plete and free from error and where we have established 
all the necessary, to say nothing of all the possible, 
relations among them. We always lack some knowl- 
edge; we always know some things incorrectly; we 
constantly fail to see the traditional four that comes 
from putting two and two together; that is, we do not 
always see the significance of things because we fail 
to relate them to ideas which would explain them. 



WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 17 

The younger we are and the less trained we are, the 
greater the extent to which these statements are true. 
In very young school children, we should expect tc 
find them especially applicable. 

Attitudes and feelings 

After very early infancy, we have, at any stage of 
life, a varied assortment of feelings about people and 
things. Certain experiences please us and we seek to 
repeat them. Others annoy us or cause actual dis- 
comfort, consequently we try to avoid them. We like 
some people and dislike others. We like certain colors, 
fabrics, kinds of music, more than others. We prefer 
reading to outdoor games, or the reverse. We are sel- 
fish or generous, kind or cruel. We are either broad- 
minded or harsh in our judgments of others. Some- 
times we older people overlook the fact that children, 
even at an early age, have these traits developed to a 
considerable degree, and that they are factors to be 
taken into consideration in teaching and training 
pupils of any age. 

Probably many of our mental states are accompa- 
nied by so little feeling of any kind as to be almost 
colorless. But many of them are so strongly tinctured 
with feeling that subsequent thought and actions are 
decidedly influenced. Sometimes a certain kind of 
feeling becomes so firmly associated with an idea as 
to be recalled to the mind whenever the latter reap- 
pears. In such a case we have an attitude of mind, a 



18 TYPES OF TEACHING 

prejudice, a sentiment, fixed likes or dislikes, and con- 
duct is governed accordingly. 

Surely these habitual states of feeling, whether mild 
or extreme, which have become associated with ideas, 
should receive attention from the teacher. It has been 
the disregard of them which has led, at times, to diffi- 
culty in dealing with undeveloped or backward races, 
or with nations having ideas and sentiments peculiar 
to themselves. The emotions, the prejudices, the men- 
tal attitudes of these people have often been over- 
looked in the attempt to govern and educate them, and 
serious difficulties have resulted. Thus the Sepoys 
of India, who eat no animal food, resented using 
tallow-coated cartridges; and the Chinese, who wor- 
ship their ancestors, felt outraged when foreigners 
constructed railroads through their cemeteries. Doubt- 
less we work at cross-purposes in dealing with young 
people, and waste both time and energy, because we 
disregard the likes and dislikes, the enthusiasms and 
prejudices which they have accumulated. 

Native endowment of instincts and capacities 

In addition to the store of knowledge and the some- 
what settled feelings which young people possess, we 
have to take into consideration the social experience 
which persists in them in the form of instincts and 
capacities. By an instinct we mean an inherited or un- 
learned tendency to behavior or action. It is instinctive 
for us to be active, both physically and mentally; tc 



WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 19 

imitate other people; to feel jealous, to become angry; 
to feel curiosity; to wish to do as well, if not better, 
than others have done. 

According to the purposes which they serve, in- 
stincts have been classified as (a) individual, such as 
fear and fighting; (b) social, such as emulation, rivalry, 
gregariousness, shame, sympathy, mothering; (c) 
adaptive, such as imitation, play, curiosity, atten- 
tion, interest. Other instincts are the collecting in- 
stinct, the instinct to manipulate, whether to construct 
or to destroy; the instinct to express one's ideas in 
some way; and the aesthetic instincts, which show 
themselves in personal adornment, in a liking for col- 
ors, for harmonious sounds and rhythm, and in the 
tendency to apply decoration to objects. Both mental 
and physical activity are instinctive. 

Not all of the instincts are present at birth. Many of 
them develop in childhood, while others appear during 
adolescence or even in a later period of life. Some of these 
delayed tendencies are the instincts to emulate others, 
to master people or things, to make collections of vari- 
ous kinds, to show off, to exercise intellectual curiosity. 

Since it is upon the instinctive tendencies to action 
that education must build, it is important that teachers 
know at least those instincts which are most helpful in 
education at the stage of development at which their 
pupils stand; otherwise they may attempt to employ 
instincts not yet active, or which have served their 
purpose and have ebbed away. 



20 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Acquired modes of acting; habits fixed or in the 
process of formation 

In addition to the native or unlearned tendencies 
to action, the pupils who present themselves in our 
classes for instruction possess a large store of acquired 
ways of acting or of responding to situations which 
confront them from day to day. These acquired modes 
of behavior are called habits. Rowe has defined a habit 
as being an acquired aptitude for some particular mode 
of automatic action. Under the term he includes 
habits of decision, of feeling, or of thought. In a later 
chapter we shall consider the teaching exercises which 
bear directly upon the influencing of habits. At this 
point we simply recognize that habits of acting, ways 
of thinking about things, and feelings which have be- 
come fixed or customary are a large part of the equip- 
ment of the learners in any class. They either help or 
hinder the teacher in carrying out the general aims of 
education and are of much more importance than is 
generally recognized. 

The teacher who undertakes to conduct a lesson in 
expressive reading, in penmanship, in cooking, sewing, 
manual training, or in almost any subject, must take 
thought in regard to the habits of speech or action or 
skill of his pupils in order to accomplish the best re- 
sults in the lesson exercise. He may either have to 
overcome bad habits previously formed or to carry 
new habits forward toward the stage of automatism. 



WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 21 

Summary. The equipment of any class which forms the 
basis upon which education must build consists of (1) a 
body of ideas only partially complete and knit together into 
an organization; (2) an accompaniment of feelings, attitudes, 
likes, and prejudices which color knowledge and influence 
action; (3) a native endowment of tendencies known as 
instincts; and (4) of a large body of acquired modes of act- 
ing, whether these actions be mental or physical, which we 
call habits. These habits have had their origin in the instinc- 
tive tendencies or instincts. 

References: E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, 
chap, iv; Stuart H. Rowe, Habit Formation and the Science of Teach- 
ing, chap, iv; E. L. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology, chap. xn. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a list of ten incorrect ideas which school children have 
been found to possess. Of ten incomplete ideas. Of five incorrect 
classifications or associations. 

2. Give examples of mistakes you have discovered in your own 
ideas within the past year. Was the mistake due to an incorrect 
idea, an incomplete idea, or to a wrong classification? 

3. Show how lessons in nature study and art may have to take into 
consideration the likes or the dislikes of pupils. 

4. What are some of the attitudes of mind of pupils which should 
be utilized in teaching history and geography? 

5. What subjects are sometimes hard to teach because of the un- 
favorable frame of mind of the learners? What can be done to 
help the situation? 

6. What distinction do you make between instincts and capacities? 
Verify your answer. 

7. Show how teaching must consider the native endowment of 
pupils in order to be successful. 

8. Give two illustrations of the use of an individual instinct, of a 
social instinct, and of an adaptive instinct in education. 

9. Explain what is meant by delayed instincts. What significance 
for teaching exists in the fact that some instincts are delayed? 

10. What was wrong with the ideas of the child who defined a frog 
as "a four-legged, bow-legged bird that walks before and sits 
behind and has no tail almost"? 



Ill 

WHAT SCHOOL EDUCATION SHOULD ACCOMPLISH 

Education should remake and extend experience 

Education at any stage of its progress must be 
based upon the experience of the person educated, — 
that is, of the learner. Indeed, the aim of education, 
as stated by one of our best-known educators, is the 
remaking of experience. What experience is we have 
considered in the previous chapter. Stated broadly, 
at any stage of one's development, one's experience 
consists of his store of ideas with the meanings he has 
attached to them and the associations he has formed 
among them; of his ways of feeling about things or 
of looking at them, — that is, of his emotional states, 
his interests, his prejudices which have become more 
or less fixed; of his instincts; and finally, of his habits 
of conduct, skill, and activity in general. Experience 
is a complex thing, made up of various elements, con- 
stantly changing, constantly undergoing revision, cor- 
rection, extension, constantly influenced by its past, 
and ever forming the basis for the next step in ad- 
vance. It is only through extending it in some direc- 
tion, or through correcting errors which have crept into 
it, or through making new associations among its 
elements, that education takes place. This process of 



SCHOOL EDUCATION 23 

extending or correcting, and of forming new associa- 
tions, constitutes the remaking of experience which is 
education. One has only to apply this thought to any 
school subject to see its significance. 

In beginning geography the few ideas which chil- 
dren have about land and water, climate and soil, peo- 
ple and their activities, are employed as the starting- 
point in the remaking process. Errors are corrected, 
ideas are enlarged, new knowledge is added to old 
from grade to grade, until the children finally complete 
the course outlined in the subject. They may continue 
in high school in special courses in commercial or 
physical geography, but in these subjects advancement 
is possible only by means of remaking the geographical 
experience previously acquired. 

In teaching mathematics the knowledge, however 
slight, which children have of number has to be used 
as the beginning of education in that direction. Their 
mistakes are corrected, new combinations are learned, 
new applications are employed, and experience is wid- 
ened and deepened as the pupil advances in his course. 
Whenever the instructor attempts to take up ideas 
for which the pupils' past has not prepared them, 
there is a break in the process of education. There 
can be no remaking of experience, since the basis is 
lacking. In teaching any subject a basis in experience 
is indispensable. Education consists in remaking or 
readjusting it. 



24 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Education should aim toward social content or value 
of experience 

It may well be asked here what the guiding principle 
is which controls the remaking of experience, — that is, 
along what lines, or in what direction, shall experience 
be re-formed or remade? For those of us who teach 
children, the answer is that experience has to be remade 
in the direction of more socialized content. This reply 
may seem so ambiguous as to have but little value. 
The objection may also be made that frequently edu- 
cation has for its aim the imparting of knowledge which 
has little or no social content. Illustration may per- 
haps throw light upon both points. It is quite possible 
to teach pupils about the Columbia River without 
socializing the knowledge thus imparted. There is no 
special social value in knowing that the Columbia 
River rises in southwestern Canada, follows a crooked 
course to the southwest, and flows into the Pacific 
Ocean. But when we learn what an obstacle this 
river was to early explorers ; that it is not navigable 
for the greater part of its course; that, because of 
the salmon which swarm its waters, it is an important 
source of food supply, we are adding social content 
to our knowledge. While both sets of facts about the 
river may be called knowledge, the latter is the more 
valuable for pupils because it is made up of ideas which 
have social relation and significance. Doubtless with 
many of us there comes a time when we value knowl- 
edge of facts in their scientific relation without con- 



SCHOOL EDUCATION 25 

sidering their social aspects. Advanced students in 
mathematics and the pure sciences disregard the so- 
cial possibilities of their subjects, being moved by a 
highly intellectual curiosity in their researches. Pupils 
in the elementary schools, however, are not often 
stirred by this kind of curiosity, and, furthermore, for 
them the social aspect, or the socialized content, is 
of more value than the scientific; hence to deluge them 
with an accumulation of facts which have little or no 
social meaning is to fail to accomplish the purpose for 
which the schools were established. 

Education should increase the control of the learner 
over the values which make up experience 

Experience cannot be remade nor can content be 
socialized through the teacher's efforts alone. The 
pupils themselves must participate largely in the proc- 
ess. Unless tha activities of the latter be enlisted, 
whether these activities be physical or mental, educa- 
tion remains at a low stage. The manual training 
teacher who contents himself with telling his pupils 
how to do things is considered a failure. In this sub- 
ject education is at once seen to consist in the gaining 
of individual control over the tools and their manipu- 
lation. In other forms of education involving physical 
activity, the same thought or idea is present, — that 
is, that advance in control by the individual consti- 
tutes education. But there are other things besides 
physical processes and tools to control. The^e are 



26 TYPES OF TEACHING 

ways of thinking or feeling about things, and ideals of 
conduct and of art which one must also learn to con- 
trol in order to be educated. Education is not a thing 
that can be poured in upon one. Our appreciation is 
not an accretion; it is a matter of growth, of mastery. 
Ideals and attitudes are not external; they are a re- 
sult of internal conquest; they are things mastered 
or attained through effort. By means of education we 
establish control over values, or things which we con- 
sider worth while, and this control must be established 
or attained by each individual for himself. For this 
reason the teacher insists upon each child working 
his own arithmetic lesson. She plainly sees that it is 
the control of the individual over the process involved 
which is valuable. She insists upon his performing his 
own drawing exercise, because there is no educative 
value to the individual in having some one else per- 
form his task. The same is true of the other school 
exercises. It is the gaining of mastery by the pupil over 
knowledge or process or some other form of worth 
which constitutes education; hence experience must 
be remade through increased individual control if 
the teacher's work is to be complete. 

Summary. (1) Starting from the equipment of experi- 
ence in the form of knowledge, habits, attitudes, and feel- 
ings which the learner possesses, education seeks to correct, 
to extend, to amplify that experience. (2) While some 
phases of education have scientific knowledge in view, — 
that is, knowledge for its own sake, — the education for 
pupils in at least the elementary and high schools should aim 



SCHOOL EDUCATION 27 

for social significance in connection with experience. (3) 
True education has as one of its ends the increase of the 
learner's control over experience in its various aspects. It 
furthers his activity rather than compels a passive or merely 
receptive attitude. 

References: W. W. Charters, Metliods of Teaching, chap. i. 

EXERCISES 

1. How is experience altered in teaching pupils the explanation of 
the process of condensation? In teaching why smoke goes up 

g the chimney? 

2. Show how at least two aspects of experience should be affected 
in teaching a class about the people of India. 

3. What could you teach about coal that does not have social value? 
What socialized content could you give to the subject? For a 
class of the sixth school year, which kind of content has greater 
worth? Justify your answer. 

4. How can algebra, history, or Latin be given socialized content 
in the high school? 

5. Make a list of five items which you would regard as socialized 
content in the study of Siberia. 

6. What are the dangers of too much telling and helping in teach- 
ing? Where should the line be drawn between enough and too 
much ? 



IV 

MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 

Types of class procedure 

There are several ways at the teacher's disposal by 
which he may lead his pupils to the results desired 
through education. Since education includes the ac- 
complishing of many and varied ends, it is to be ex- 
pected that the stimuli or agencies used by the teacher 
will vary, that form of exercise being employed at a 
given time which is best adapted to secure the object 
desired at that particular time. A general view of these 
agencies or forms of teaching exercises should precede 
the treatment of these individually. 

a. The telling exercise or the lecture method. As long 
as knowledge was the main object striven for, the use 
of books and of the telling, or lecture, method pre- 
dominated, and at times was employed to the exclusion 
of all other means. We still value these modes of im- 
parting knowledge because communication in some 
form is indispensable in passing on to the rising gen- 
eration the accumulated wisdom of the society in which 
it finds itself; but since no one is really learned who 
can merely recite verbatim what he has heard or read, 
the use of books and of the lecture method has been 
modified. It will probably never be discarded or en- 



MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 29 

tirely superseded by other modes of teaching, because 
from books and teachers pupils sometimes learn what 
they can acquire by no other means. Even if it were 
possible to obtain the ideas by other means, it is at 
times more economical and more satisfactory to gain 
them from reading, or by the so-called lecture method. 
The objection to this method is that it is frequently 
employed when it is not the best means of instruction. 
People attempt to tell what can be learned better by 
other methods, such as observation or reflection. 

b. The object lesson. As the school comes into closer 
contact with the world in which it is placed, with the 
life of which it should ever be a part, the study of 
objects and activities at first hand through observa- 
tion and participation, or through experiment, is 
necessary; consequently there must be provision for 
object lessons, for excursions, for demonstrations, for 
observation in general. 

c. The study of ideas in relation; inductive and de- 
ductive lessons. We must make provision in our teach- 
ing procedure not only for the study of facts and for 
the consideration of individual ideas, but we must 
provide also for the study of things in relation. This 
relation may be that of structure and function, as in 
plants and animals; of cause and effect, as in the sci- 
ences or history; of similarity of parts, structure, or 
function, as in the case of minerals, animals, words, 
geometric forms, geographic phenomena, or the like; 
or of the individual to the class or family to which it 



30 TYPES OF TEACHING 

belongs, as when we determine the part of speech under 
which a word should be classified, the family which 
includes a given animal, or the rule which determines 
the spelling of a word or the solution of a problem. 

When a lesson seeks to find a common element or 
process in several ideas which groups them together 
or explains them, it is called an inductive lesson. When, 
however, the lesson seeks to apply the explanation 
or principle already known to processes or ideas so 
as to make them clear, it is called a deductive exer- 
Icise. 

d. The exercise to arouse appreciation. We have been 
slow in reaching the stage where we realize that the 
emotions, the sentiments, and appreciations of chil- 
dren are worth taking note of for any other purpose 
than mere suppression of that which is evil. Our efforts 
even now are sporadic when we attempt to deal with 
these aspects of child life. The comic valentine, the 
ugly picture book, the unspeakable newspaper comic 
picture, the uncompromisingly plain schoolhouse, the 
neglected school grounds, the dull matter of the books 
used, the failure to utilize pupils' sentiments or feel- 
ings in our teaching, — these are some of the evidences 
of our activity in debasing ideals on the one hand and 
of neglecting them on the other. We are beginning to 
see that there is a duty here, not only in surroundings 
and in materials for instruction, but also in the method 
of teaching. We shall, therefore, deal with that type of 
teaching which has to do with the cultivation of feel- 



MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 31 

ings, and of appreciation of that which is fitting, beau- 
tiful, and noble. We shall include here not only that 
which is worthy in language, thought, and environ- 
ment, but in conduct and morals as well. 

e. The formation of habits and the increase of skill. 
Not all of life consists in thinking and in experiencing 
sentiments. A large share of it is made up of activity, 
of doing things. 

Many of our forms of activity must be reduced to 
the stage of the automatic; therefore, the teacher who 
would really train must provide for that phase of edu- 
cation which gives training in applying knowledge, in 
forming habits, and in acquiring skill. Such instruc- 
tion is usually called drill. Through drill we strive 
not only to fix facts and processes, but also to increase 
skill so as to improve the product of our activity, as in 
a penmanship lesson. 

/. Training pupils to study. It is only within the 
last decade that much attention has been given to the 
way by which people arrive at results in their school 
work. The results alone were emphasized, though prob- 
ably all teachers felt that there was more or less diffi- 
culty experienced by the pupils in getting them, and 
doubtless many felt their helplessness to aid learners 
to better ways of working. Some progress has been 
made in investigating the question of what proper study 
really is, and enough experimenting has been done with 
pupils to show that they are capable of employing right 
methods. We shall, therefore, consider the study lesson 



32 TYPES OF TEACHING 

as one type of teaching. It is the lesson in which 
the teacher shows the pupils how they may best help 
themselves. 

g. The assignment lesson. We must not overlook 
in this connection the exercise which prepares pupils 
for individual study. It frequently consists of a mere 
statement of the number of pages or paragraphs or 
problems to be studied. We shall see that it can be 
made much more helpful than this; that it can not 
only show what ground is to be covered, but that it 
can also indicate the sources from which material can 
be obtained, and that it can put the pupils into such 
a frame of mind that they will work with interest and 
energy. 

h. The recitation lesson. There comes a time in 
school procedure when the pupils must present to the 
class the results of their study, not only to show their 
mastery of their work, but to give the rest of the class 
the benefit of their results, to have their ideas corrected 
if need be, and to give opportunity for discussion and 
amplification of the material presented. Such exer- 
cises are called recitations. There are teachers who 
make a recitation lesson consist of a verbatim repro- 
duction of thought which has been read or heard by 
the pupils, without discussion, without supplementary 
ideas being presented, and with little or no explana- 
tion. The recitation may and should be much more 
than this. It should be a period when pupils may pre- 
sent their results before the whole class for considera- 



MEANS WHICH AH) IN EDUCATION 33 

tion by the class. Through the recitation one of the 
best opportunities is offered for the remaking of expe- 
rience; that is, for correcting and extending the ideas 
of pupils and for influencing their interests and their 
feelings about things. It is a great waste of a splendid 
opportunity to limit the recitation hour to the mere 
repetition of words, and to neglect the thoughts and 
the emotions which the words represent. 

i. The review lesson. The review lesson is that exercise 
in which the pupil takes stock, so to speak, of what he 
has been studying, organizes it, so as to bring out the 
relationships clearly, or possibly establishes new rela- 
tionships. It may be that in using knowledge already 
in his possession as a basis for a new lesson, the pupil 
obtains an entirely new view of this old knowledge, — 
he re- views it. He sees it from a different angle and its 
value is thereby increased. The more the pupil is able 
to use what he has learned by making it the basis for 
new acquisitions, the more full of meaning his experi- 
ence becomes. For example, in explaining the move- 
ment toward independence in the Balkan States by 
reference to the movement toward independence in 
our own country at the time of the Revolutionary War, 
the pupil is compelled to review his ideas in regard to 
that period of our history ; and since he is going to em- 
ploy this knowledge as a basis for comparison and 
explanation, the exercise is much more valuable than 
if the facts were repeated with no definite purpose in 
view. 



34 TYPES OF TEACHING 

j. The socializing phases of school work. Those forms 
of school exercises which attempt to communize the 
pupils' life and efforts, and to attach social meaning and 
value to the matter presented, will be considered as 
socializing lessons. Sometimes these lessons are inter- 
preted as meaning cooperative effort on the part of 
the pupils. A wider meaning is attached to the term 
here. Not only may the activities of the pupils be 
made to assume a social form, but the content, the 
subject-matter, of the lessons may to a high degree 
be given social significance, and made to effect social 
ends. 

These exercises not mutually exclusive 

It is not to be understood that these types of teach- 
ing occur in isolation and that they cannot be com- 
bined during a class exercise. A teacher will probably 
never go very far in a day's program without employ- 
ing several of them. The hope encouraged here is that 
making the teacher conscious of these forms and the 
purposes served by each will cause him to employ 
them more intelligently and more effectively, to the 
great advantage of the pupils in his class. 

Types of teaching not to be regarded as special 
methods 

The exercises here outlined are not to be regarded 
as special methods in the sense that one is employed 
in teaching one subject and that the rest are individu- 



MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 35 

ally employed in the teaching of other subjects. The 
use of any one of the types is determined by the end 
to be accomplished, by the response desired, whether 
it be some form of manual or physical activity, increase 
of knowledge, or a change in one's moral, aesthetic, or 
emotional life. Thus, if a habit is to be formed, whether 
in language, arithmetic, or drawing, drill will be nec- 
essary. If objects or processes are to be observed, 
whether it be in nature study, physics, or sewing, an 
object lesson will be employed. 

The various types of teaching are applicable to sev- 
eral subjects of instruction, not only because similar 
results are sought in all, but also because the same 
psychological processes must be employed in the teach- 
ing of all of them. We analyze situations or ideas; we 
associate mental states or activities; we apperceive; 
we employ analogy as a basis for thinking or acting; 
we experience various feelings and are influenced by 
them; we form judgments whether we study geog- 
raphy, history, literature, or art. Those types of teach- 
ing which have to do with the gaining of knowledge 
through observation or experiment may be employed 
in connection with any subject, whether botany, geog- 
raphy, or chemistry, in which knowledge may be sub- 
jected to such processes. The types of teaching which 
have to do with fixing knowledge so that it will be 
retained, or with the forming of habits either mental 
or physical, may be employed in any subject or in any 
form of activity in which knowledge is to be made 



36 TYPES OF TEACHING 

permanent or habits fixed. In a given lesson several 
kinds of teaching may be involved, because the pro- 
cedure may vary with the several aspects of the 
recitation. One may first endeavor to impart knowl- 
edge, then to arouse appreciation based upon the 
knowledge imparted, and then he may try to put the 
knowledge into permanent form for reproduction. To 
accomplish these various ends, different types of teach- 
ing are employed. The types are not, therefore, mu- 
tually exclusive, since several may occur in the same 
lesson period. 

Summary. The various forms of teaching procedure 
may be classified as (1) the telling or lecture lesson; (2) the 
object lesson; (3) the inductive and deductive lessons; (4) 
the exercises to arouse appreciation; (5) the habit-forming 
lesson; (6) the study lesson; (7) the assignment lesson; (8) 
the recitation lesson; (9) the review exercise; (10) the social- 
izing exercise. 

These exercises are not mutually exclusive, but may repre- 
sent various phases of one period of work with a class. They 
are not to be regarded as special methods, since they apply 
to any school subject in which they assist pupils to reach the 
desired ends of education. 

EXERCISES 

1. Give an example of the use of the lecture or telling method in 
which you think that procedure was justified. Explain. Give 
an example of its use which you consider a wrong application of 
the method. 

2. In which of the elementary or high-school subjects can objects 
or processes be studied directly. Explain briefly in each case. 

3. What advantage is there in direct study of objects and processes 
compared with hearing or reading about them? 



MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 37 

4. Show by an example taken from nature study how the relation 
of cause and effect may be studied. 

5. From an illustration taken from grammar, show how logical 
relations may be studied inductively. 

6. With an example taken from physics or mathematics, show how 
relationships are studied deductively. 

7. Show how relationships of time and place must be considered 
in the study of history. 

8. What forms of appreciation have you definitely tried to arouse 
and direct in your class within the last year? 

9. Name at least five directions in which arousal or guidance are 
highly desirable. 

10. Why not make drill simply incidental to other teaching? 
ll-i Since the mind works according to certain laws, why not take 
it for granted that pupils will naturally study in the right way? 

12. What are the disadvantages of an indefinite, incomplete, or hur- 
ried lesson assignment? 

13. What relation should exist between the assignment of a lesson 
and the recitation on the lesson? 

14. What faults should you say are common in recitation lessons? 
Suggest remedies. 

15. How would you use review in teaching the outbreak of the war 
in Europe in 1914? 

16. Show how at least four kinds of teaching exercises can be pres- 
ent in one lesson period. 



EXERCISES WHICH AIM AT THE DISCOVERY OF 
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE : THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 

The purpose of the inductive lesson 

It is a natural process for people even in early child- 
hood to associate in groups, classes, or families things 
which are alike in structure, appearance, or use. A 
child is not very old when he shows that he recognizes 
certain objects as chairs, whether they be high chairs, 
low chairs, plain chairs, or rocking-chairs, and whether 
they be made of wicker, grass, wood, or other material. 
Certain likenesses of form and use lead him to treat 
them all as chairs and to apply the same name to all. 
At an early age he groups things about him into fairly 
correct classes according to their looks, the way they 
act, or the uses to which they are put. It is his way of 
explaining and mastering the world. A thing unre- 
lated is a thing unexplained, and so long as it remains 
unexplained it is useless. 

This process of establishing relationships may simply 
lead one to group together things which are alike in 
some external way, as in the case of the chairs just 
cited. However, it may go deeper into the relation- 
ships and produce explanations, principles, rules, 
ideals, or other general conclusions. When a general 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 39 

idea or principle, which applies to several concrete or 
individual instances so as to explain them or give them 
meaning, is obtained through the study of concrete or 
individual instances, the process of thought is induc- 
tive. And when a teacher guides his pupils through 
the study of individual objects or examples to some 
form of general knowledge, he is employing the induc- 
tive development lesson or exercise. Thus the defini- 
tion of a noun may be discovered by noting the nature 
of several words of this class, and the rule for multi- 
plying a fraction by an integer may be formulated by 
pupils after repeated observations of the process in 
different examples. 

Much of the material provided by the course of 
study should be mastered by this process of induction. 
The individual ideas or facts have little meaning when 
simply observed or memorized and then passed by. 
It is the meanings, the explanations, the relationships 
which are of value, since by their aid other facts are 
to be understood, and by them one's activities are to 
be determined. Then, too, it is important that pupils 
master the process of inductive study, since through 
it they can carry on investigations independently of 
any teacher. It is one of the most valuable means of 
establishing control over ideas. 

Teachers sometimes say that very little of the sub- 
ject-matter affords opportunity for inductive treat- 
ment, but this statement reveals the teacher's igno- 
rance of the pupils, and also of the necessities of the 



40 TYPES OF TEACHING 

course of study. Even the subject of spelling, in which 
the work is about as disconnected as possible, involves 
several rules of pronunciation, rules for forming plu- 
rals, and rules for spelling, all of which can be learned 
by observing a number of words and discovering the 
rule from its use in these words. Grammar contains 
many rules and definitions, and these are in most cases, 
if not in all, best learned inductively. The same state- 
ment holds true in regard to the many rules involved 
in the study of arithmetic. Nature study, while not in- 
tended to be a scientific study of natural phenomena, 
calls frequently for the "why" and the "how" of 
things, and sometimes involves comparisons which 
lead to classification; as when the rat, mouse, squirrel, 
and rabbit are discovered to have several features in 
common, or the hollyhock and the common mallow 
are discovered to be surprisingly alike. A certain kind 
of foot is soon discovered to be characteristic of birds 
that are swimmers, while the wading birds are easily 
recognized from the structure of legs and feet. 

In language the manner of writing headings, the 
idea of a margin, the indentation of a paragraph, the 
use of capital letters, and similar concepts can be 
learned effectively by the inductive process, as can 
also the ideas of introduction, of thought sequence, 
and numerous other features which are properly a 
part of the subject called English. The general struc- 
ture of a drama can be determined by the study of 
several classics representing this form of literature. 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 41 

What is meant by narration, description, and the like 
can be made very plain through direct study of writ- 
ings of these types. 

Geography and history, so frequently merely mem- 
orized, can be filled with meaning and worth if in- 
ductive reasoning be employed in their study. They 
contain underlying principles and fairly bristle with 
questions, the solution of which involves inductive 
reasoning. Why was there so much delay in settling 
and developing the land west of the Mississippi River? 
Why did the people of France overthrow the govern- 
ment and put Louis XVI to death? Why did the peo- 
ple of the Northern States oppose the extension of 
slavery? Why were not all of the Americans in favor 
of separation from Great Britain in 1776? Why do not 
all places equally distant from the Equator have the 
same climate? What effect do mountains have upon 
temperature and rainfall? These are a few of the many 
questions whose answers may be obtained through 
inductive reasoning on the part of the pupils; that is, 
reasoning which seeks to formulate rules, principles, 
definitions, or other general explanations and does not 
seek to apply general principles already known. 

The formal steps involved in inductive teaching 

Certain steps have been found helpful in employing 
the inductive form of reasoning in teaching. These 
steps have been formulated and advocated by the 
Herbartian school of educators. They are known as 



42 TYPES OF TEACHING 

the formal steps of instruction, and consist of (l) the 
preparation; (2) the presentation; (3) the comparison; 
(4) the generalization. There is a fifth step, called the 
application, in which the results of the inductive proc- 
ess are put into operation, or are applied. As the step 
of application is essentially deductive, its considera- 
tion will be deferred to a later chapter. 

a. The preparation. (1) In the step of preparation 
the teacher prepares the class for the study of the new 
material. This step does not mean the teacher's prepa- 
ration of himself for the lesson, but rather his prepara- 
tion of the class. It does not include the teaching of 
the new subject-matter. It merely paves the way 
for its consideration. Briefly stated, the preparation 
should bring the class to realize the need of certain 
knowledge; to face a problem which must be solved; to 
ask " how " or "why " ; to seek an explanation or a mode 
of procedure. Pupils are led to discover their own 
ignorance or inability in regard to some particular 
knowledge or process. Frequently they can frame the 
question which should form the starting-point for the 
lesson which is intended to satisfy the need that has 
been brought to consciousness. It may be necessary 
for the teacher to state it, but if the problem or diffi- 
culty or lack is keenly felt by the class, some pupil or 
pupils will usually ask the question. The teacher will 
grow in skill in leading the class to feel their need, and 
to frame the questions which lead to its satisfaction. 

Since the question, or statement of the problem, 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 

which constitutes the aim for the new lesson is to be 
based upon the conscious need of the pupils, it is clear 
that the statement of the aim will occur either at the 
end of the step of preparation or during its course; and 
that it will be rather unusual to have it occur at the 
beginning of this step, where many people have tried 
to place it. 

(2) In addition to bringing the class face to face with 
a problem, the preparation should include the recall 
of knowledge which is related to the new lesson and 
which will aid in its mastery. This knowledge recalled, 
made clear, and organized ready for use, gives the 
background for the advanced work. It is the apperceiv- 
ing basis for the understanding of the new knowledge 
which is to be gained. The pupils who were going to 
find out in the new lesson why Louis XVI of France 
was put to death by his people recalled, as a part of the 
step of preparation, what they knew of the overthrow 
of Charles I, of the reasons for the separation of the 
American colonies from the English Crown, and of the 
causes for the Cuban struggle for independence. 

The step of preparation may occupy a longer or 
shorter time, depending upon the number of ideas to 
be reproduced, and the amount of work which must be 
done to reproduce them and make them clear so that 
they may serve as a basis for the comprehension of the 
new lesson. It may not take more than the statement 
of the aim or problem to bring the old knowledge to 
mind in the desired state. On the other hand, the 



44 TYPES OF TEACHING 

preparation may occupy an entire lesson period, or 
even several periods. One cannot say safely or wisely 
that he will devote a quarter or a fifth of the whole les- 
son period to this one step. Just that amount of time 
may be required, but more or less may be needed. 
The work should move along promptly, occupying 
only as much time as is needed to bring out the prob- 
lem and to review the knowledge necessary for the ad- 
vanced work. Digressions and side issues should be 
avoided, and attention should be held closely to the 
work in hand. Whether the time be long or short, the 
step has been accomplished when the pupils are clearly 
conscious of an aim, and have in mind ready for use the 
ideas that are to serve as the background for the new 
facts which are to be taught. 

b. The 'presentation. (1) Teaching the new facts or 
ideas to the class constitutes the step of presentation. 
In order to learn these facts the pupils may study indi- 
vidual examples or objects, as in nature lessons or 
spelling; they may perform experiments, as in physics 
or chemistry; they may work out processes, as in arith- 
metic or cooking; they may take excursions and have 
observation lessons, as in geography, botany, or geol- 
ogy; they may study concrete ideas previously learned 
and later reproduced in order to furnish material for the 
lesson, as in studying the ways by which heat is pro- 
duced. The teacher may resort to telling in order to 
bring the facts before the class, although this mode of 
teaching should be used sparingly as observation and 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 45 

experimentation by the pupils produce much better 
results. The teacher frequently resorts to telling be- 
cause it seems to him a short and certain way of mak- 
ing the children acquainted with the new knowledge. 
However, the results show that it is often the least cer- 
tain of all the possible modes of presentation, as mere 
telling does not insure understanding. 

{%) The step of presentation must include enough 
examples, processes, or concrete cases to make the 
traits possessed in common very clear. Any one who 
has tried to teach long division knows the futility of 
expecting a class to master the process by working one 
example. On the other hand, the observation of the 
kind of teeth found in the mouth of one cow, with the 
consideration both of the uses which they serve and the 
cow's method of grazing, might justify the conclusion 
that all cows must have the same kind of teeth. There 
must be enough facts to teach clearly and surely the lesson 
desired. This rule must be the teacher's guide. 

(3) Another principle to guide the teacher is that 
the material must be varied enough to make the con- 
clusion correct and representative. It is a common 
occurrence for teachers to try to develop the idea of 
pronouns by giving examples of personal pronouns 
only, and frequently limiting these to the third person, 
disregarding the fact that pronouns may be of the 
masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, or of the first, 
second, or third persons, and of either the singular or 
plural number. If one is teaching rivers, it would be 



46 TYPES OF TEACHING 

better to study one river that flows into the ocean, one 
that flows into an arm of an ocean, one that flows into 
another river or lake, and one that is lost in a plain, 
rather than to have all of the same kind. 

(4) Sometimes teachers have difficulty in the step of 
presentation because they do not select the material 
in which the traits upon which the rule, principle, or 
definition must be based, stand out prominently; or 
they are so obscure and indefinite in their treatment of 
the material that they becloud rather than illuminate 
the points which should be made clear. The irrelevant 
and the unimportant should be avoided and attention 
should be centered upon the significant and relevant 
facts. Anything which diverts attention, or stands 
between the mind and the ideas it is to master, is a 
hindrance. Showy experiments, complicated appara- 
tus, involved sentences, difficult examples, lack of clear 
and concise meaning, are common faults found in 
inductive teaching. In presenting new facts about sen- 
tences, the examples should be simple in thought and 
should not contain strange words. In teaching a new 
process in arithmetic, the numbers and the thought 
involved should be simple so as not to interfere with 
the concentration of attention upon the process. Re- 
ducing the number of questions asked, and making the 
rest very clear and to the point, help to direct rather 
than divert the minds of the learners. The teacher 
should, therefore, give thought to his questions before 
the lesson period, and decide definitely upon the form 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 47 

of those which are most essential in bringing out the 
ideas to be gained. 

At the close of the step of presentation, the pupils 
should have gained a clear knowledge of the elements 
in the examples studied which are necessary to the 
formation of the general idea. Should the inductive 
process go no further than the step of presentation, the 
children will have gained at least an intimate acquaint- 
ance with a large and varied body of individual ideas 
and objects. 

c. The comparison. (1) In the step of comparison 
the pupils are made clearly aware of the elements or 
processes of the examples studied in the preceding step 
which are common to a class or group. Thus, the pu- 
pils in history who were studying the French Revolu- 
tion, found during the step of presentation that the 
French people had objected to long-continued tyranny, 
and had set up a new government in which the rights 
of the people were to have more recognition than under 
the old form. In the step of comparison, they found 
that the English under Charles I had done the same; 
that the Americans under George III, and the Cubans 
under Spanish control, had worked for and attained 
similar results. They discovered tyranny on the part 
of all the governments, various attempts to overcome 
it on the part of the people in each nation; and, as it 
happened in each of these cases, they found that the 
oppressive power was finally overthrown after pro- 
tracted struggle. In learning long division the pupils, 



48 TYPES OF TEACHING 

through comparison, discover that they divide, then 
multiply, then subtract in each example, and then 
write down the new figure in the partial dividend, and 
that they then repeat the four steps in order until the 
division is completed. 

(2) This process of discovering the essential com- 
mon elements is frequently aided by placing the ex- 
amples or objects studied in a position favorable to 
this purpose. Thus, writing the words receive, deceive, 
perceive, conceive in a column serves to show the simi- 
larity in spelling. The observation of likeness is ef- 
fected at times by introducing a striking contrast. 
Thus, the introduction of a scratching bird into a 
group of swimmers may serve to call attention to the 
similarity of foot structure in the latter group, a fact 
which the pupils may have overlooked. Writing the 
answers in a definite position in division of decimals 
helps to master the process of determining the number 
of decimal places in the quotient. Sometimes con- 
trast is an aid, as when the word fife is inserted in 
the list when teaching the formation of the plurals 
of nouns ending in / and fe, such as wife, wolf, loaf, 
leaf, half. 

(3) It sometimes happens that teachers carry an 
inductive lesson through the steps of preparation and 
presentation, and then perforin the step of comparison 
themselves, thus depriving the pupils of needed exer- 
cise and weakening the effect of the work. In conse- 
quence the pupils often do not see the resemblance at 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 49 

all, or else receive so feeble an impression that they do 
not retain it, and consequently the process fails of its 
purpose. If material is worth an explanation, or leads 
to general ideas which are valuable, then the pupils 
should discover the characteristics or processes upon 
which the explanation or generalization is based. The 
teacher should so arrange the material, and so direct 
his questions, that the pupils will be aided in seeing 
the important facts; but he should not state them 
himself in the vain hope of saving time. 

d. The generalization. (1) Following the step of com- 
parison comes the step of generalization in which are 
summed up the results of the previous steps. If the 
pupils have been trying to find out why, in multiplica- 
tion of decimals, as many places are pointed off in the 
product as the sum of the decimal places in the multi- 
plier and multiplicand, it is in the step of generaliza- 
tion that the explanation is definitely stated. If they 
have been learning to multiply a fraction by a fraction, 
it is in this step that they express the rule for such mul- 
tiplication. It is in this part of the inductive process 
that the pupils should formulate the statements for 
the agreement of verbs with their subjects, the agree- 
ment of pronouns with their antecedents, the rule for 
the formation of plurals, the effect produced when an 
acid and a base are united, the nature of heat, the law 
of falling bodies, the conditions necessary to plant 
growth, the influence of altitude upon climate, the 
relation between products and industries, and the 



50 TYPES OF TEACHING 

maxims and moral truths which result from the study 
of human actions, such as "Taxation without repre- 
sentation is tyranny," "All government derives its 
just powers from the consent of the governed," or "It 
is wrong to steal." 

(2) At times, even though the comparison has 
shown clearly the points which are essential to a gen- 
eral conclusion, the pupils stumble over the wording of 
the rule or principle. When the class which was study- 
ing the story of the French Revolution reached the 
place where some conclusion should be stated, one 
pupil worded it thus: "Any fellow that tries to be a 
boss is going to get it." When it is clear that the pupils 
have the idea, they should, if necessary, be helped to a 
proper wording of it. Then the rule, or law, or explana- 
tion, as given in some textbook, may be compared 
with the statement made by the class, or the suitable 
maxim or adage may be committed to memory. 

(3) The suggestion has just been made that the 
pupils may compare their own conclusions with the 
conclusions reached by other people. Such a reference 
serves as a verification of the results obtained by the 
pupils and is valuable on that account. This verifying 
of conclusions is the test of the whole process of induc- 
tive thinking, as it sets the seal of comparative cer- 
tainty upon it. Experiment and observation are excel- 
lent forms of verification. When they are not possible 
or advisable, the conclusions of others, as found in 
reference books, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, maps, 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 51 

charts, tables, and the like, may be utilized. It is 
frequently the case that the pupils verify their results 
by conferring with one another, or with people in the 
home or community. 

Advantages of this type of lesson 

The inductive process may seem long and arduous 
to teachers, and it may seem much more economical 
for them to give the explanation to the class, or to 
staje the rule. In reality the time consumed for cov- 
ering the four formal steps involved in the inductive 
process may be short, requiring only a few minutes. 
In actual practice is demonstrated, also, the futility of 
the teacher's telling and explaining. Probably most 
teachers tell their pupils to observe the margin when 
writing, to begin each sentence and every proper name 
with a capital letter, and to use an interrogation point 
after a sentence which expresses a question. Does this 
telling suffice, or do pupils fail to grasp the ideas and 
keep on year after year violating all these rules? 
Pupils in the grammar grades and in the high schools 
often show by their practice that they have not learned 
these simple laws of composition in such a way as to 
secure their application. How long would it take to 
have them observe margins in their textbooks and then 
state the rule for the use of the margin; to have them 
discover for themselves by definite searching that 
proper names are begun with capital letters? After 
such training, if a pupil forgets, he can be taken back 



52 TYPES OF TEACHING 

to the same source to refresh his memory. The telling 
method has not sufficed even in cases so simple as 
those just cited, and consequently time has been lost 
year after year. 

The knowledge resulting from induction is literally 
the pupils' own because they have created it by their 
study. It usually possesses more meaning and per- 
manency than it otherwise would. The results fur- 
nish the principles necessary to explain concrete in- 
stances and problems which are met later. Then, too, 
through use, pupils learn the technique of the process 
of induction, and have a method by which they may 
independently study their environment. 

Limitations of the method 

Teachers may occasionally resort to induction when 
the material is not valuable enough to justify it; that 
is, they are not content at times to bring the children 
into contact with individual ideas that are interesting 
and worth while in themselves, but try to force con- 
clusions which either are not valuable or which the 
material never was meant to yield. Thus to try to 
derive a lesson on table manners or morals from the 
story of Alice in Wonderland is absurd. When the 
inductive process was introduced into this country 
in the form of the Five Formal Steps, many teachers 
carried its use to the extreme and attempted to ap- 
ply it to all material, thus making the work exceed- 
ingly formal and difficult. At the present time the 



THE INDUCTIVE LESSON 53 

pendulum has swung too far in the opposite direction, 
and teachers attempt to acquaint their pupils with 
general conclusions and ideas without providing an 
adequate basis of concrete ideas. 

There is certain material which should be carried 
no further than the step of presentation. The pupils 
should know it just because it is interesting of itself, 
or is interesting for the time being; but, as has already 
been pointed out in this chapter, there is much subject- 
matter to which the complete inductive process should 
be applied. Teachers may occasionally resort to induc- 
tion when the material is not valuable enough to justify 
it ; but experience shows that the error lies rather in not 
using it enough, and in attempting to tell, instead of 
leading pupils to think, and to discover explanations 
and conclusions for themselves. 

Summary. (1) The purpose of the inductive lesson is to 
aid pupils to master values, to reorganize experience by dis- 
covering logical groupings, and by working out the principles, 
rules, definitions, or other forms of generalization which ex- 
plain classes of ideas or processes. (2) The steps in an induc- 
tive lesson are (a) the preparation, (b) the presentation, (c) 
the comparison, (d) the generalization. (3) The advantages 
of this type of teaching are that the pupils know thoroughly 
what they know, that they are provided through it with the 
means of solving concrete problems later, and that they 
learn through its exercise a logical method of working. (4) 
It is useless and unwise to try to employ inductive teaching 
with all material, since not all subject-matter possesses logi- 
cal value. Some subject-matter has value which is tempo- 
rary, or which is aesthetic rather than logical. 



54 TYPES OF TEACHING 

References : C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the 
Recitation, chapters n-vni; W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, 
chap, xix ; John Dewey, How We Think, chap, vn; E. L. Thorn- 
dike, Principles of Teaching, chap. x. 

EXERCISES 

1. Examine textbooks in grammar and arithmetic and name any 
which employ the inductive method to develop the rules and 
definitions. 

2. Give arguments for and against placing the statement of the 
pupils' aim at the beginning of the step of preparation. 

3. Give illustrations of at least four ways by which the students 
may learn the facts about the individual cases studied in the 
step of presentation. 

4. What advantage, if any, exists in having variety in the objects 
studied preparatory to forming a general conclusion? 

5. Write a list of sentences which you would use to teach the idea 
of adverb. 

6. Examine the sentences to determine (1) whether you have illus- 
trated all the uses of the adverb; (2) whether you have given 
sentences enough to make the different uses clear; and (3) 
whether you have varied the forms of the sentences sufficiently 
to help the pupils gain the desired ideas, or whether you have 
used practically the same type of sentence with the adverbs 
located in the same place throughout. , 

7. How can you help pupils gain the knowledge of likenesses and 
differences without telling them? 

8. When pupils have, through induction, gained the idea desired, 
how are they to obtain the name which applies to the idea; that 
is, when they discover that a certain class of words can be used 
in place of nouns, how will they get the name pronoun? 

9. How many forms of general knowledge such as rules, laws, do 
you know? Make a list. Compare with others. 

10. Would you ever accept from pupils a generalization made by 
them which is correct but which is crudely worded? Why, or 
why not? 

11. How can pupils be aided in good wording of conclusions? 

12. What generalizations have you ever had pupils verify? Have 
you been in the habit of verifying your own? 

13. What advantages are there in learning to verify conclusions? 



VI 



LESSONS IN WHICH GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IS 
EMPLOYED: THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 

What is meant by deduction 

Only a part of the process of education consists in 
the-formation of explanations, principles, theories, and 
other methods of controlling experience. A very im- 
portant function of training is to teach students to 
master difficulties by employing those forms of control 
established either by the students themselves or by 
others. This process of solving a problem, of overcom- 
ing a difficulty whatever its form, by bringing to bear 
upon the problem or difficulty some conclusion already 
formed, is known as the deductive process. The 
teacher resorts to it whenever he causes his pupils to 
answer questions, solve problems, or master the puz- 
zling situations which confront them by referring to 
rules, principles, laws, axioms, or other general conclu- 
sions already in their possession. A relation is estab- 
lished between some more or less concrete idea and the 
fundamental truth upon which it rests. The applica- 
tion of the truth is thus extended and the concrete idea 
acquires the meaning which it did not before possess; 
that is, the meaning of the class to which it is assigned. 
A teacher asked a class, which was studying Homer's 



56 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Odyssey, whether Ulysses, whose men had gone to the 
palace of Circe the enchantress and had not returned, 
would not sail away in fear lest some misfortune might 
occur to him also. "No," was the answer. " He would 
not go away because he was a good leader and a good 
leader does not desert his men." Here the fundamen- 
tal idea is that a good leader will not desert his men. 
By relating the idea of Ulysses to this truth, the pupil 
found his answer. The process is clearly deductive. 
By use of it, new light is thrown upon the character of 
Ulysses, since he, having been put into the class of good 
leaders, has ascribed to him thereby the traits of the 
class. Also, when the child's judgment that Ulysses 
would not desert his men was confirmed by referring to 
the narrative, the fundamental idea about good leaders 
was strengthened, so that the pupil might well have 
exclaimed, "Did I not say a good leader would not 
desert his men?" 

Deduction in its relation to the inductive process 

This process of deduction is related very closely to 
that of induction, so closely, in fact, that the inductive 
lesson is not considered complete until the step of 
application has been taken, and that is essentially de- 
ductive. When all of the five formal steps — namely, 
preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, 
and application — have been employed in a lesson, the 
whole process is usually called the inductive-deductive 
lesson. During the steps of presentation, comparison, 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 57 

and generalization, the abstract idea or general princi- 
ple is formed. In the application, this idea is employed 
to explain individual situations or examples, to give 
the right clue to action. When pupils have learned 
what a pronoun is, they apply their knowledge by 
identifying pronouns occurring in lists of words, in 
books, or in their own oral speech. When they have 
learned how to reduce fractions to their lowest terms, 
the application consists in the actual reduction of 
fractions to their lowest terms. Words should be rec- 
ognized by pupils as pronouns because they are used in 
place of nouns; and the reduction of a fraction, as -^5-, 
to its lowest terms should be based upon the law 
that a fraction is reduced to its lowest terms by divid- 
ing both numerator and denominator by the largest 
number that will exactly divide both. When pupils 
make such use of their knowledge, they are reasoning 
deductively. 

It is sometimes the case that the deductive phase of 
teaching occurs in very direct relation with the induc- 
tive lesson in the form of the application of the truth 
just formulated. Thus, after the statement of a rule 
or definition in grammar or rhetoric, or a rule in arith- 
metic or algebra, there is often a list of examples involv- 
ing the use of the definition or rule. But deduction is 
frequently involved in situations which are not so 
neatly collected and labeled, and in which the principle 
which must solve the problem is not furnished ready 
for use and printed in italics. It must be searched out 



58 TYPES OF TEACHING 

of past experience and fitted to the case in hand. If a 
person should be asked to explain how a pump works, 
or why water boils at a lower temperature in Denver 
than in New York City, he would probably have to 
reflect for a time before finding the right explanations 
even when he has them safely memorized. It takes 
searching to find the reason that applies. This is the 
constant experience of the doctor, the lawyer, the engi- 
neer, of people in every walk of life. Problems arise 
in miscellaneous fashion, and the guiding principles 
must sometimes be sought long and earnestly before 
they are found. 

Steps or stages in a deductive exercise 

a. The problem. First of all, there is a problem to be 
solved, a situation to be met. This must be clearly felt 
by the pupils, as they are to engage in the deductive 
process of reasoning, and that requires the conscious- 
ness of a problem that must be satisfied in the mind of 
the person who is to employ the deductive process. 
This problem may not be more complicated than the 
necessity of finding the cost of one orange when six 
oranges cost thirty cents; of determining whether I or 
me should be used after and in the sentence, "The pic- 
ture was given to you and — "; of deciding what 
colors to mix in order to produce green. 

b. The study of details and principles. Many mis- 
takes in life are made because of the attempt to apply 
remedies, to make explanations, or to rush into action 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 59 

before the thing which is to be done or explained or 
remedied is clearly understood. We need to know the 
facts in the case before we can choose the right course 
or the proper basis for the solution of our difficulty. 
We must collect data bearing upon the problem. The 
physician observes his patient with care, seeking many 
details and frequently resorting to the use of specially 
adapted instruments in order to secure these details 
before he goes further with his diagnosis. Before the 
engineer can safely decide upon the kind of bridge to 
build, he must ascertain many facts about the place, 
the height of the banks, the nature of the bed of the 
stream, the amount of water at different seasons, the 
pressure to be expected from ice, the kind and amount 
of traffic for which the bridge is intended, and many 
other points. So the pupil who must classify words 
must find out the facts necessary for that purpose. 
Does the word modify ? If so, what kind of a word does 
it modify? It is useless to look for the class until the 
essential details are known. Until the significant facts 
about New York and Denver are known, there is no 
clue to the physical principle which explains why water 
boils at a lower temperature in one city than in the 
other. 

c. The hypothesis or inference. While examining 
data, another phase of deduction keeps coming into 
activity. It is the attempt to apply to the solution of 
the problem at hand some principle or explanation 
connected with the data discovered. This step is 



60 TYPES OF TEACHING 

known as inference, or the forming of an hypothesis. 
Every teacher's experience bears testimony to the 
statement that pupils need training in the process of 
associating the given facts with the right principles. 
Young people guess wide of the mark, are irrelevant 
altogether, or find theories which are not adequate. 
To the question, "What conditions make it possible 
to grow rice in Texas?" the answer is suggested, 
"Texas is the largest State in the Union." This reply 
is no more irrelevant than thousands of explanations 
suggested by pupils not only in elementary schools but 
in higher schools as well. The explanations do not 
explain; they do not apply. Instead of rejecting such 
replies at once, the pupils should be helped to realize 
that, starting from the data given, they must seek for 
an explanation which bears upon the problem. Thus 
the word to be classified is found to be a word which 
modifies. The pupil may conclude at once that it is an 
adjective because adjectives are modifiers. Further 
search for facts reveals that the word in question modi- 
fies a verb. The adjective hypothesis must then be 
discarded in favor of the idea that the word must be 
an adverb, because words which modify the meaning 
of verbs are adverbs. The more or less scientific guess 
or explanation offered can be regarded merely as an 
hypothesis, or inference, that is, a tentative theory 
which must be examined to see if it meets the situa- 
tion. The pupil who gives size as the reason foifcrjee- 
growing in Texas should be required to explain how 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 61 

that factor applies to the situation. He then discovers 
his own error. 

The fraction -J^- is to be reduced to lower terms. The 
class stumbles over the process. "How is a fraction 
reduced to lower terms? " asks the teacher. "By multi- 
plying both terms by the same number," answers a 
pupil. "When the fraction is reduced to lower terms 
will the numbers be larger or smaller than they now 
are?" "They will be smaller." " If you multiply both 
terms will the resulting numbers be larger or smaller 
than in our fraction f^?" "They will be larger." "Will 
multiplying reduce the fraction to lower terms?" 
"No." "How can numbers be reduced? " "Either by 
subtraction or division." "Which of these processes 
should be employed in the reduction of fractions to 
lower terms?" "Division." "How is a fraction re- 
duced to lower terms?" 

In this instance the pupil has been compelled to 
examine his rashly stated inference, to see what it 
means, and to decide whether it is the right one for the 
situation. One of the things he should learn to do fre- 
quently in life is to make his inferences with care. The 
teacher who cuts short the process by saying, " No, 
you do not multiply, you divide in order to reduce 
fractions to lower terms," deprives pupils of needed 
training, though he may have helped to a quick answer. 

d. Verification of hypothesis finally selected. The next 
step in deduction follows closely and quickly upon the 
discovery of the right principle. What is known to be 



62 TYPES OF TEACHING 

true of the class to which the problem belongs is in- 
ferred to be true of the problem, and the latter is solved 
by applying the principle. In the example of reduction 
just given, the questioning stopped with the statement 
of the rule for the reduction of a fraction to lower 
terms. {n_jvenfying his inference, the pupil divides 
both terms of the fraction by the same number, and 
examines the resulting fraction to see if it is really 
expressed in lower terms than the original. The solu- 
tion of the problem or difficulty constitutes a verifica- 
tion of the reasoning process employed. If the pupil, 
after dividing both terms of his fraction by the same 
number, finds the newjmmerator and the new denomi- 
nator to consist of smaller numbers., he knows he has 
reduced his fraction to lower terms. The man who 
invents a new process for the manufacture of steel 
verifies his theory by the actual making of steel. The 
man who derives a cure for tuberculosis accepts or 
rejects it by its effects upon tubercular patients. 

But not all verification works out so visibly. In 
moral and aesthetic problems, one's self-approval or 
feeling of satisfaction is often the test of the theory 
selected and applied. Combinations of colors or tones 
for certain purposes are due to custom, or to individ- 
ual taste. They cannot be verified by appeal to logic; 
but they may be approved if they are found to con- 
form to accepted standards. 

A negative form of verification is the absence of any 
ideas or elements in conflict with the theory adopted. 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 63 

This fact suggests that it is advisable to look for data 
which oppose the hypothesis formed. A simple experi- 
ence in physics illustrates this point. Some water in a 
tightly corked bottle was heated until it boiled. It was 
removed from the fire and held under a stream of 
water. The water in the bottle boiled furiously. The 
children inferred that the stream of water must be hot 
because it is always the application of heat which 
makes water boil. Investigation proved to them that 
the stream of water was cold. To find that heat causes 
water to boil is one theory. To find that nothing else 
does so is quite another. Children may be justified in 
accepting a given explanation upon the basis that they 
can find nothing to contradict it. Scientists have a 
long list of hypotheses which they justify because there 
is nothing to oppose them; so, while they cannot prove 
that they are true, they nevertheless employ them. 

In order to confirm his own solution of a difficulty, 
or to discover contradiction, a pupil submits his results 
to others. He talks his solution over with his fellows 
and compares results. He seeks the teacher's opinion 
or the opinions of people outside of school. He refers to 
books. In brief, he looks to the experience and judg- 
ment of others for confirmation or correction of his 
solution. It is right that he should do so, though he 
should not do it to the extent that he forms the habit 
of giving up his own conclusions as soon as he discovers 
opposition. Giving up conclusions should be as ra- 
tional a process as forming them. 



64 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Use of textbooks in deduction 

To reason deductively, to meet situations by em- 
ploying general principles, implies that pupils have 
these principles at their disposal. Through the process 
of inductive thinking, whether outside of school or 
with the teacher's assistance, they acquire a large 
number of general notions. However, there is not time 
enough to develop all that they need, and furthermore, 
they can employ theories which they are not mature 
enough or experienced enough to evolve. These they 
must obtain from some available source, and then use. 
They must rely on some authority at this point, 
whether it be the teacher, the textbook, or some other 
help. The problem once presented itself in the writer's 
experience of finding the contents of a car of oil, the 
car being in the form of a recumbent cylinder, of 
given length and diameter and lacking several inches 
of being full. Had the cylinder stood on one end, the 
solution would have been easy; but it rested on the 
side, and no rule was known to the writer that would 
get the answer, and the answer was imperative. A 
textbook on engineering was consulted and the for- 
mula which applied to such problems was found and 
applied. It is quite conceivable that pupils in school 
might need just such a formula, and that they might 
not have the knowledge of mathematics necessary to 
help them derive it inductively. They need to learn 
where to look for such helps, and they need to recog- 
nize their suitability when found. 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 65 

Suggestions in regard to the use of the deductive 
process 

What should the teacher do to aid pupils in their 
efforts to think deductively? In the first place, he 
should discover before class what places in the les- 
sons afford really good opportunities for using the pro- 
cess. Grammar and mathematics thrust opportunities 
upon the class, but geography, history, and the other 
subjects are not so openly deductive. When the 
teacher has decided upon the situations that are neces- 
sarily deductive, or that can be made so to the gain of 
the class, he must so shape the work with the class that 
the pupils will come upon the problem or situation 
which requires solution or explanation or decision. 

The pupils will probably need some help in the 
various steps: first, in seeing just what the situation 
is; second, in choosing the right principle; third, in 
making the inference and in solving the difficulty; 
and, lastly, in the verification. While the steps ought 
not to be made too easy, and while there ought not 
to be too many suggestive questions which ignore the 
ability of the pupils, still some assistance is often 
necessary. The pupils sometimes grope blindly for the 
general idea which gives the solution. They do not 
know which way to turn or to look. The teacher needs 
to guide their search and sometimes to suggest possibil- 
ities for consideration. As the class grows in skill, the 
teacher should withdraw more and more from this 
helping and guiding process in the selection of princi- 






66 TYPES OF TEACHING 



pies. He should insist upon the application of the 
theory selected to the case in hand, not only for the 
sake of the solution of the problems to be solved, but to 
further the habit on the part of the pupils of testing 
their choice of theory in actual use. He can help them 
verify their results, not merely by passing judgment 
himself, but by suggesting means of verification and 
by holding pupils to verification when verification is 
necessary and feasible. 

It is possible that most teachers use the deductive 
process more frequently than they are aware. It may 
be that induction has been emphasized so much that 
the deductive lesson has not received due considera- 
tion, and that its importance has been overlooked. It 
is a necessary means of working out puzzling situa- 
tions, of solving difficulties, of reasoning out new 
knowledge, and our pupils need all the training possi- 
ble along just such lines. By their own acquired wis- 
dom and by the wisdom of the race, they may meet and 
solve life's knotty problems if they know how to utilize 
this wisdom. 

Professor Dewey gives us this very helpful suggestion 
in regard to the use of deduction : — 

In other subjects and topics, the deductive phase is iso- 
lated, and is treated as if it were complete in itself. This false 
isolation may show itself in either (and both) of two points; 
namely, at the beginning or at the end of the resort to gen- 
eral intellectual procedure. 

Beginning with definitions, rules, general principles, class- 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 67 

ifications, and the like, is a form of the first error. This 
method has been such a uniform object of attack on the part 
of all educational reformers that it is not necessary to dwell 
upon it further than to note that the mistake is, logically, 
due to the attempt to introduce deductive considerations 
without first making acquaintance with the particular facts 
that create a need for the generalizing rational devices. Un- 
fortunately, the reformer sometimes carries his objection 
too far, or rather locates it in the wrong place. He is led into 
a tirade against all definition, all systematization, all use of 
general principles, instead of confining himself to pointing 
out their futility and their deadness when not properly moti- 
vated by familiarity with concrete experiences. 

The isolation of deduction is seen, at the other end, wher- 
ever there is failure to clinch and test the results of the gen- 
eral reasoning processes by application to new concrete cases. 
The final point of the deductive devices lies in their use in 
assimilating and comprehending individual cases. No one 
understands a general principle fully — no matter how ade- 
quately he can demonstrate it, to say nothing of repeating 
it — till he can employ it in the mastery of new situations, 
which, if they are new, differ in manifestation from the cases 
used in reaching the generalization. Too often the textbook 
or teacher is contented with a series of somewhat perfunctory 
examples and illustrations, and the student is not forced to 
carry the principle that he has formulated over into further 
cases of his experience. In so far, the principle is inert and 
dead. 1 

Summary. (1) By deduction is meant the establishment 
of control over individual ideas or situations through the 
application of principles, rules, definitions, laws, axioms, or 
other forms of general knowledge possessed by the individual 
who makes the application of them to the concrete case. As 

1 John Dewey, How We Think, pp. 98-99. 



68 TYPES OF TEACHING 

the result of the process, the individual case takes on larger 
meaning, and the principle or law is broadened in applica- 
tion. (2) Deduction is intimately related to induction. This 
relationship should be maintained in the teaching process. 
The inductive process is not complete until it terminates in 
general knowledge. This knowledge should be employed in 
the interpretation of individual problems such as gave rise 
to the inductive process. (3) The steps in the deductive proc- 
ess are (a) the realization of a problem; (6) the study of de- 
tails and the search for principles, rules, laws, or definitions 
which will explain them; (c) the formation of an hypothesis 
or inference; (d) the verification of the hypothesis or infer- 
ence. (4) Textbooks afford frequent opportunities for the 
exercise of the deductive process. They frequently give re- 
sults of inductive reasoning which pupils usually accept 
without question. Such books should afford many problems 
requiring deductive effort. Furthermore, textbooks contain 
statements of rules, laws, principles, and definitions to which 
students should refer for verification of their own efforts, and 
for aid in solving their difficulties. (5) The teacher is cau- 
tioned not to attempt the omission of the deductive process 
in order to hurry the pupils forward to correct answers. Pu- 
pils need training in reasoning quite as much, or even more, 
than they need some of the answers. They need assistance 
and patient treatment while exercising the different steps of 
the process. The suggestion is made that the teacher guard 
against excessive employment of deduction in his own teach- 
ing procedure, that is, against trying to force into use general 
forms of knowledge for which the pupils are not prepared. 
It is also suggested that pupils be led to use freely the under- 
lying ideas they already possess in the mastery of new situa- 
tions. We must guard against two evils in connection with 
the employment of deduction; namely, trying to use gen- 
eral principles before the pupils possess them, and, secondly, 
omitting to use them when pupils do possess them. 



THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 69 

References: C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the Re- 
citation, chap, ix ; John Dewey, How We Think, chap, vn; W. C. 
Bagley, The Educative Process, chap, xx; Colvin and Bagley, Hu- 
man Behavior, chap, xviii; L. B. Earhart, Teaching Children to 
Study, chap, in; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap, xiv; 
E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, chap, x; G. D. Strayer, 
A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. vi. 

EXERCISES 

1. Cite an instance when a teacher should have required pupils to 
explain a situation by means of general knowledge already in 
their possession and failed to do so. 

2. Cite an instance when a teacher attempted to have pupils ex- 
plain a situation through a principle or rule which they did not 
possess or clearly understand. 

8. Does failure to classify a word as a verb always mean that pupils 
do not know the definition of verb? What else may it mean? 

4. What objection is there to telling a class that if equals be added 
to equals the results will be equal, and then giving two or three 
illustrations to show what is meant? 

5. A certain writer maintains that when general truths may be 
grasped as readily as the one stated in the preceding exercise, 
it is advisable to state them simply and clearly and then illus- 
trate what is meant. Do you agree with him? What advan- 
tage is there in this plan, providing it works successfully? 

6. Give instances of the use of deduction following induction in 
five school subjects. 

7. Why should there be a careful study of the individual instance 
or example in deduction? 

8. What mistake or mistakes are likely to be made in connection 
with forming the hypothesis or making the inference? 

9. How can you help pupils guard against the mistakes mentioned 
in exercise 8 ? 

10. Why should inferences be verified? 

11. Suggest several ways in which the conclusion may be verified. 

12. In teachiDg, which type of exercise should predominate, — the 
inductive or the deductive? 

13. What difficulties do you foresee in the application of general 
truths learned by the inductive process? 

14. Through which process of learning, the inductive or deductive, 
have you profited most? Suffered most in expenditure of time 
and energy? 



VII 

THE STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 

The nature of the object lesson 

The object lesson is a teaching exercise which aims to 
increase knowledge by the direct study of material, 
processes, or conditions. Such a lesson might be given 
in botany with the plants present to observe; in phy- 
sics, with the apparatus before the class and the experi- 
ment performed; in chemistry, with the action of one 
substance upon another demonstrated; in geography, 
through the observation lesson in which the pupils see 
for themselves the forms of land and water, or the 
action of water upon soil and rocks. A visit to a mill, a 
shop, a store, or a ship, to see what is done and how 
the work is performed, is an object lesson. Trips to the 
aquarium, the museum, the zoological garden, the bo- 
tanical garden, and the lessons in the school garden 
all belong in this category, as do also many of the les- 
sons in cooking, sewing, and manual training. 

Through these lessons pupils should gain intimate 
acquaintance with a wealth of concrete material in 
their environment. The resulting knowledge should be 
all the more clear because several senses have been 
active in acquiring it. Sight and hearing, and fre- 
quently taste, smell, and touch, add their quota to the 



STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 71 

fund. Mere telling or reading or picture study cannot 
impart the vividness, the details, .or the interest that 
come from seeing things for one's self, and of being a 
participant at times in the processes which bring about 
results. 

The relation of the object lesson to the inductive 
lesson 

Since the objects studied must be related to knowl- 
edge already possessed in order to be understood, and 
since the ideas gained are derived from the analytic 
study of the material itself, the object lesson involves 
the first two steps of the inductive lesson, — the steps 
of preparation and presentation. Frequently the 
knowledge gained from the study of concrete material 
and processes is used as a basis for comparison, gener- 
alization, and application, and in that case all of the 
formal steps are employed. Many times a single form 
— as a stream, a mountain, a plant, or an animal — is 
studied thoroughly, and is then made to serve as a type 
for similar objects, thus furnishing a core for later com- 
parisons and generalizations. The teacher may never 
attempt to base a general conclusion upon the object 
studied, but, through the natural tendency to reason 
from the concrete to the abstract, the pupils in the 
course of time may of themselves use the results of the 
object lessons to derive classifications, explanations, or 
laws. 



72 TYPES OF TEACHING 

The need of the step of preparation in the object lesson 
Much of the so-called nature study in our schools 
serves as a sad warning as to how object lessons should 
not be conducted. With no preliminaries whatsoever, 
the pupils are expected to be interested in the object 
presented and to see just what they ought to see. With 
no ideas in mind to serve as a means of explaining the 
new facts, and with no live motive for observation, 
they either give a list of the anatomical parts, or recite 
in perfunctory fashion from a cut-and-dried outline. 
Why should there be an object lesson unless the thing 
to be observed has value either in the purpose it serves 
directly, or in its relation to other objects or processes? 
Granted that the lesson is to be conducted for the 
purpose of mastering some value, there must, then, be 
preparation of some kind to arouse the motive, or feel- 
ing of need, that will be satisfied through the lesson. A 
lesson on the canary will not consist of the statement 
that the bird has feathers, bill, and feet, but will be 
conducted, possibly, to find out why people keep cana- 
ries as pets, and how these birds should be cared for. 
Not only must the motive be aroused in the minds of 
the pupils; the related ideas which form the basis for 
the understanding of the new knowledge which is to be 
gained must be recalled, as explained in the chapter on 

the inductive lesson. If two classes of levers biwe been 

j 
studied and a third one is to be presented, th p relevant 

facts about the first two classes should be ca\ed up and 

made ready to serve as the means of explaining the 



STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 73 

new form. Frequently, the development of an aim or 
purpose is sufficient to bring to mind the related ideas 
which are needed. 

The teaching of the new lesson 

a. The presence of a motive serves to guide and to 
limit the observations and the activities in the step of 
presentation. An object lesson in geography without a 
clear aim is a desultory proceeding, and frequently 
results in much disorder and little knowledge. The 
aims in any one lesson should be few and distinct, and 
the attention of the class should be held closely to 
observing the facts which relate to them. Other ques- 
tions may come up, but they should be reserved for 
other lessons or else deferred until the particular atms 
of the lesson in hand have been covered. 

It will help pupils to keep to the point if they write 
in their notebooks the questions or topics they are to 
consider, and then, as important parts are brought out 
in the lesson, they should write these in order under the 
proper question or topic. Sometimes, when attention 
lags or wanders, the teacher needs to call it back by 
asking, "What are we trying to find out just now?" 
or some similar question. The pupils will learn pres- 
ently to criticize those who stray from the subject at 
hand. 

b. Too much study of detail defeats the purpose of 
the lesson. Excessive study, even of the concrete, in 
one class period results in hazy and confused impres- 



74 TYPES OF TEACHING 

sions. The observations should be limited to compara- 
tively few facts and these should be well mastered. 

c. Some pupils who are less shy than others fre- 
quently monopolize much of the time given to an object 
lesson, while the timid ones hesitate to ask questions 
which they would like to have answered, or to place 
themselves in a position where they can see well the 
facts to be observed. Unless the teacher takes cogni- 
zance of this condition, part of the class will fail to reap 
much benefit from the lesson. The opportunities for 
observation and questioning should be distributed for 
the benefit of the entire class. 

d. Excursions and other similar lessons often afford 
occasions for study by the class and for individual 
study as well. Certain phases of the lesson are ob- 
served by all pupils, while individuals or groups have 
special assignments to work up and report upon. In an 
excursion, this necessitates calling the class together 
from time to time for the study of some points, and 
then permitting the pupils to work on their individual 
problems. It requires the determination beforehand of 
meeting-places, and of signals to call the class together. 
It means, also, that the pupils must understand clearly 
that the excursion is not a mere pleasure outing, but 
that it is a lesson which requires obedience, careful 
work, and responsibility for results. 

e. When the observations have been made, the pu- 
pils should be held accountable for the lesson. The 
question or questions with which the lesson started 



STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 75 

should be answered. Individual and class study 
should be recited upon in the following lesson period. 
A satisfactory account of what has been seen or done 
should be given either in oral or written form, and the 
main points should be made prominent. 

Planning the object lesson 

The object lesson requires careful planning on the 
part of the teacher. If a geography class is to have an 
outdoor lesson, the teacher should inspect the place 
beforehand, decide upon the points to be studied, the 
best places for observation, the route to be traversed, 
and similar details. If it is an experimental lesson in 
physics or chemistry, materials and apparatus should 
be prepared, and the experiment should be rehearsed 
by the teacher to be sure that everything is in working 
order. Many a lesson has been interrupted at a critical 
point because the instructor forgot some piece of appa- 
ratus, or failed to find out beforehand that the appara- 
tus or materials were not in working order. If the 
lesson is the usual exercise in the classroom, the teacher 
should be foresighted and prepare for it so that when 
the day arrives for the lesson the materials may be at 
hand and ready for use. 

Providing illustrative material 

The matter of providing illustrative material for 
nature lessons has not impressed some teachers seri- 
ously. Very recently the writer has seen a teacher 



76 TYPES OF TEACHING 

trying to give a lesson on clams with only a part of a 
clam shell to illustrate the work. This was in a neigh- 
borhood where clams may be obtained readily. An- 
other was teaching about snails with no objects present 
at all, despite the facts that only a few blocks away 
there was a pond where plenty of snails could be found, 
and that the pupils would have been very glad to col- 
lect some for the lesson. A lesson on the canary bird 
consisted in a desultory talk about the bird, which 
arrived nowhere in particular. No bird was in evi- 
dence, although a question revealed the fact that in 
several of the homes represented canaries were kept as 
pets, and that the pupils could and would bring the 
birds to school if they were wanted. Such lessons as 
these just cited are not really nature lessons. To fulfill 
their purpose, there should be enough material at hand 
for every pupil to see the facts. In many cases this will 
mean a specimen for every member of the class. 
Sometimes it will mean but one object for the entire 
class. To study the fly, spider, or mosquito with only 
one specimen for a class of fifty pupils does not meet 
the purpose. On the other hand, one bird, one gold- 
fish, or one stalk of corn might suffice for a class. 

In some cases the pupils should provide the material 
for study, and this for several reasons. It encourages 
the collecting instinct, and it connects the school activ- 
ities with the outside world. Furthermore, in obtaining 
the material the pupils frequently learn much about 
the specimens which they would have missed other- 



STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 77 

wise. The children who look for mosquito larvae dis- 
cover some facts which are well worth knowing; and 
the boy who secures a full-grown dandelion plant with 
its entire root finds at least one good reason why the 
plant is so hard to exterminate. 

A word of caution, however, is necessary in regard to 
encouraging pupils to obtain materials for school pur- 
poses. Fine shade trees, the wild birds and flowers, and 
private property should all be respected. Pupils must 
be taught to bear this fact in mind. If wild flowers are 
gathered, the roots should be spared for future flower- 
ing. Sentiment and good sense can be brought to bear 
in regard to what to select and how to treat it. 

Another suggestion about nature study is that the 
course of study should be so arranged that the objects 
may be studied in their most favorable season. This 
ought to be self-evident but experience shows that it is 
not so. The mosquito in January and seed-dispersal 
in February are typical of assignments of topics which 
teachers have been known to prepare. If pets are to be 
brought to school, they should be studied when the 
weather is not so cold as to make their visit to the 
classroom dangerous. Spring flowers should be as- 
signed to the months when they bloom, and insect life 
should be observed when the weather makes it possible 
to obtain specimens. Material obtainable at any sea- 
son may well be given in those months during which 
excursions are impossible, and plant and animal life 
are difficult to observe. 



78 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Summary. (1) The object lesson consists of the study of 
material, activities, or conditions at first hand. (2) It may 
form a part of the inductive lesson, and in any case requires 
motivation and the use of an apperceiving basis. (3) The 
observation should be closely limited to the facts which bear 
upon the problem and all pupils should observe these facts. 
Some pupils may have special tasks assigned to them. (4) 
The class should be held responsible for the results of the 
lesson. (5) The object lesson requires careful preparation on 
the part of the teacher. (6) There should be enough illus- 
trative material for all pupils to observe the facts to be 
taught. (7) This material may be collected by teacher or 
class according to circumstances. (8) Plant and animal 
forms and other natural phenomena should be studied in 
their most favorable season. 

References: W. W. Bagley, The Educative Process, chap, xvi; 
G. D. Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. v. 

EXERCISES 

1. Show how the study of the apple blossom may form a part of an 
inductive lesson. Of a deductive lesson. 

2. Make a list of ten objects or processes which may be studied 
through object lessons. After each one write the motive which 
you might arouse in the minds of your class for its study. 

3. In any object lesson, what facts would you omit? 

4. What objection is there to permitting a very bright pupil to do 
most of the reciting in this type of lesson? 

5. In the study of interesting material, pupils tend to wander far 
from the aim. Suggest ways of preventing wandering without 
dampening enthusiasm. 

6. Which would you consider the better object lesson, — one in 
which fifty details had been observed or one in which ten had 
been considered? Upon what do you base your judgment? 

7. Suggest ways of obtaining enough material for the object lesson 
on the spider. 

8. Can the study of the picture of a spider be classed as an object 
lesson! Why, or why not? 

9. Should pictures be used when objects can be obtained? 



STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 79 

10. Pupils in a certain city were directed to bring specimens of tree 
branches and leaves to class. They spoiled all the young trees 
in the neighborhood of the school in obeying the order. How 
may such damage be avoided and material still be obtained? 

11. What advantage has the study of objects and processes directly 
over learning about them in any other way? 

12. Select some manufacturing plant or other place of industry in 
your neighborhood, tell what you would expect the entire class 
to observe during a visit, and designate what you would assign 
to individual pupils for study. 



VIII 

THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 

The purpose of the assignment 

The lesson assignment is that form of teaching 
which prepares pupils for work outside of the class 
period, or when lessons must be prepared without the 
teacher's direct assistance. It may be that the lessons 
are to be studied at school, or worked up at home or in 
the library, or somewhere else outside of the classroom. 
Wherever they are prepared, the pupils are supposed to 
be following directions imparted to them in some as- 
signment exercise. This assignment must indicate the 
work to be done, and frequently, one might say, usu- 
ally, should take account of the special difficulties to 
be met and the best means of studying the particular 
lesson assigned. 

Kinds of lessons which may involve assignment 

The assignment is sometimes treated in lectures and 
textbooks as if it prepared for textbook study only. 
This is too narrow a view to take of the exercise. It 
prepares for any work to be done by the pupils inde- 
pendently; that is, without the teacher at hand to sup- 
ervise and direct every step taken. The task assigned 
may be the acquiring of knowledge from some source, 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 81 

whether from books, people, observation, or reflection. 
It may be the collection of materials for an object les- 
son. It may be the application of principles, as in ge- 
ometry, arithmetic, or grammar. It may be a private 
drill exercise in spelling, multiplication tables, penman- 
ship, oral reading, music, or sewing, or some other sub- 
ject which requires practice to insure skill. It may be 
the performing of certain exercises to correct physical 
defects or to assist physical development, as bending, 
stretching, and drawing deep breaths. Any teaching 
which involves work outside of the class period must 
evidently require an assignment; hence to limit the 
discussion to textbook lessons is to treat the subject 
too narrowly. The assignment may be a part of an 
inductive or deductive exercise, an object lesson, a 
drill lesson, a review lesson, or any form of class exer- 
cise which conforms to the conditions above stated. 

When the assignment should be made 

If the work to be prepared by the class grows out of, 
and depends upon, the preceding class exercise or les- 
son, then the assignment may properly and profitably 
be made at the close of that lesson. If, however, the 
work is not dependent upon that lesson, the assign- 
ment may be made either at the beginning or at the 
end. The new exercise in literature may not depend 
upon the one which immediately precedes it; conse- 
quently, the teacher may choose whether to assign 
the following lesson before the recitation on the one 



82 TYPES OF TEACHING 

at hand, or to complete the latter and then devote the 
necessary time to assigning the new exercise. The dan- 
ger of delay is that the time often passes more rapidly 
than the teacher is aware, and the assignment is there- 
fore too meager and indefinite for the good of the class. 

It frequently happens that the questions which con- 
stitute the problems to be solved in the new lesson are 
raised during the course of some lesson a day or more 
in advance of the period when the subject is to be dis- 
cussed in class. When not too remote from the day of 
recitation, it is worth while to make the assignment 
when the questions are raised, even if it interrupt the 
lesson for a few minutes. The motive is in the proper 
setting then, and the new lesson will be all the better 
prepared on that account. If the assignment keeps thus 
cropping out during the course of an exercise or several 
exercises, there should be a definite restatement of it as 
a whole before the study period, so that all pupils may 
know just what they are to do and how they are to do it. 

One cannot make a hard-and-fast rule about the 
time of the assignment, since it depends upon condi- 
tions which vary. However, the teacher should choose 
the time thoughtfully and not leave it to the mercy of 
chance or habit. 

What the assignment should do specifically for the 
class in regard to subject-matter 

As the assignment may be involved in any form of 
teaching exercises which require independent efforts to 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 83 

extend knowledge, — such as the inductive lesson, and 
the deductive lesson, — it partakes of their technique. 
Certain features of these types of teaching are feat- 
ures, also, of the assignment. It must bring to con- 
sciousness the problems to be solved, and the condi- 
tions to be met in the period of independent work. If 
it should fail to do so, the preparation by the pupil will 
consist probably of memorizing the text or of indefinite 
work in other directions. Undirected effort is random 
effort, and without an aim or motive such effort is the 
only kind the pupil is likely to expend. It may be that 
the assignment involves observation, experimentation, 
reading, talking with others, or reflecting upon a situ- 
ation and working out a chain of reasoning, either in- 
ductively or deductively. It may involve the steps of 
comparison and generalization, or it may demand the 
application of rules and principles. Whatever the 
effort involved may be, the motive which is to call it 
forth must be made clear in the assignment. The as- 
signment may thus at times coincide with the step of 
preparation, since it includes the raising of a ques- 
tion or problem, and when necessary the recall of 
the ideas upon which the understanding of the knowl- 
edge to be gained by the pupils must rest. Thus, 
in assigning an advance lesson in geometry, the 
teacher not only leads the class to see clearly what 
is to be done, but helps the students to see what part 
of their previous knowledge bears upon the solu- 
tion. Seeing the question plainly and knowing where 



84 TYPES OF TEACHING 

» 

help lies, the pupils are prepared for independent 
work. 

A teacher of mathematics in one of our best-known 
normal schools taught geometry for many years with 
marked success without using a textbook in class. 
Textbooks were absolutely forbidden, as were the note- 
books of previous classes and all other helps. The 
assignments were models of definiteness. The problems 
were stated so that no one could fail to know what he 
was to do. Then the axioms and previous demonstra- 
tions which seemed to bear upon the new problem were 
recalled and scanned with critical mind to see if they 
offered the necessary basis. When the class was on the 
right track, the assignment ended. 

Many pupils fail in preparation largely because these 
two features of the assignment are not observed fully ; 
namely, defining clearly the thing to be done, and re- 
calling the old ideas which explain the new. 

It sometimes is the case that the subject-matter 
assigned for study from books contains technical diffi- 
culties in the form of new words used in an unusual 
way or of difficult grammatical constructions; or the 
difficulty may lie in the obscurity of the author's 
meaning. A young pupil who, in preparing a reading 
lesson, must struggle with the pronunciation and 
meaning of a number of words is greatly handicapped. 
These difficulties should be anticipated in the assign- 
ment and the path made clear. Even older pupils who 
are reading such classics as Merchant of Venice or Lady 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 85 

of the Lake will need the same kind of assistance. Those 
who have tried to teach literature, mathematics, or 
grammar to pupils in the higher grades of the elemen- 
tary schools, or in the high schools, are well aware that 
even a little variation from the sentence constructions 
to which pupils are accustomed is sufficient to keep 
them from getting the meaning. Only recently a young 
girl read the line, " The muster place be Lanrick Mead," 
as "The mustard place be, Lanrick, Mead." A new 
word and a slight variation in form were too much for 
her to comprehend. Those who teach foreign languages 
find it particularly necessary, in the assignment of a 
new lesson, to call attention to the new or rare forms 
of words or sentences so that there may be understand- 
ing without the expenditure of too much time. The 
pupils are to do a certain amount of work within cer- 
tain time limits. They need enough assistance in the 
assignment to enable them to meet these conditions 
with good, faithful effort on their part. 

How the assignment should help with methods of 
study 

In their efforts to keep their pupils from simply mem- 
orizing a textbook lesson, teachers sometimes tell them 
to prepare to give the thought in their own words. 
Sometimes they go a step farther and give a list of 
questions the answers to which the pupils are to find 
during their study period. A still more advanced stage 
of procedure is the preparation of a topical outline by 



86 TYPES OF TEACHING 

the teacher upon which the pupils are to recite after 
they have studied the lesson. When the pupils have 
had practice in independent work, the assignment 
may include directions for them to prepare a list of 
questions covered by the lesson they are to study, said 
questions to be brought to class to be answered by 
classmates ; or, they may be required to prepare their 
own topical outline according to which they will 
make their recitation. Such assignments prevent or 
break up the habit of memorizing the text and compel 
the selection and arrangement of the most important 
points studied. 

Need of indicating sources of data in the assignment 

In some study periods, the pupils must find data 
from other sources than the textbook. A lesson as- 
signed to a primary class in New York City involved 
finding out where the parks of that city are and what 
these parks offer that is instructive and entertaining. 
"Where will you go to find out?" asked the teacher. 
After thinking about the question, the children con- 
cluded they could find out from the wall map where 
the parks are, and could ask at home about the answer 
to the other question. Similarly, in an eighth grade, the 
pupils who were going to make an independent study 
of the continent of Africa reflected about sources for 
a time and decided upon certain atlases, textbooks, 
books of travel, and other sources. The teacher then 
added to the list of references. The result of such pro- 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 87 

cedure is that the pupils can go to work at once with- 
out losing time in deciding about sources, and that 
they will be likely to use the best sources, since they 
help one another by their suggestions during the as- 
signment, and the teacher has an opportunity to cor- 
rect and supplement their list. 

Class and individual assignments 

The two assignments just cited contained another 
feature which it is often advisable to employ. There 
were too many parks for all to study, so different parks 
were assigned to individual pupils for investigation. 
A similar arrangement was made in the assignment of 
work about Africa. Certain reference books and cer- 
tain topics were assigned to groups of pupils who were 
to make their topical outlines and report. Such assign- 
ments give worth and interest to the work of individual 
pupils or groups and usually result in greater effort, 
since the class is to learn some definite fact or facts 
through the reports made. Furthermore, in this way, 
more ground can be covered than when every pupil is 
required to study every fact for himself. We live in an 
age of investigation and of committees, and we may 
well utilize the plan in school, profit by it in our work, 
and give the pupils training in its employment. Of 
course, there will usually be some parts of the lesson 
which must be studied by all pupils in the class, and at 
times all pupils must study the entire assignment. 



88 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Page assignments 

It need hardly be said that such assignments as 
have been here discussed are very different from the 
assignment of a certain number of pages with no 
accompanying suggestions. When a page assignment, 
or the designation of a certain amount of ground in a 
book to be prepared, means nothing more than memor- 
izing, or trying to say the lesson in one's own words, it 
is inadequate. When pupils know how to study as they 
should independently, then it is not out of place to 
make such assignments. Students then know what to 
do with them and should be required to make the right 
kind of preparation. 

The assignment book and clear assignments 

It is the frequent experience of principals of schools 
that parents complain of the indefinite assignments of 
home work or the lack of any assignment. Children say 
they have nothing to do, or else that they did not un- 
derstand what was to be done. It is doubtless true that 
these statements are sometimes mere fabrications; on 
the other hand, they are frequently justified. Some- 
times the assignment lacks clearness or is made so 
hastily that the pupils fail to grasp it. Then, too, 
pupils forget by the time the study period arrives what 
is to be done, and also the details of their task. To 
avoid all these conditions, assignment books are advis- 
able. In these may be written the ground to be cov- 
ered, the suggestions as to method, and the other 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 89 

facts necessary to the successful preparation of the 
lesson. 

These books should be written up at the time of the 
assignment, and two or three pupils should be asked to 
read what they have written. This will insure definite- 
ness, and it leaves no excuse for the pupil who is in- 
clined to shirk by pleading ignorance of what is to be 
done. The use of such a book reflects itself in the 
teacher's method of giving out lessons. She must take 
time for a full assignment, arrange it carefully, and 
word-it clearly. This is good both for teacher and class. 

Effect of proper assignment upon interest and effort of 
pupils 

A great advantage of the assignment which sends the 
pupils to their study with a motive or problem is that 
it affects the attitude of the class toward the lesson. 
There is an opportunity to arouse interest in the sub- 
ject and a genuine desire to perform the work for the 
sake of the results it will bring, — not in percentages 
and class standing, but in knowledge and skill. The 
pupils who begin the study of Japan with the idea of 
finding out how it was able to defeat a great nation like 
Russia; or who attempt to discover why a handful of 
English along the Atlantic coast of North America 
were able to wrest supremacy in the continent from a 
great military power like France; or who go to their 
work with the questions, What need does the State 
have of money? and, How does it provide its funds? — 



90 TYPES OF TEACHING 

are much more likely to be interested and to expend 
effort than if no such motives for work are brought 
before them. If these questions are asked by pupils, 
which is quite possible, they must of necessity grow 
out of some class discussion or the consideration of 
some facts which have aroused curiosity, — a prolific 
source of problems and a guaranty of interest. With 
the question raised, there is the possibility of having 
suggestions as to causes. These suggestions, or hy- 
potheses, constitute part of the assignment, as they 
must be investigated to see whether they are true and 
whether they solve the problem. 

The effect of studying because of motive and interest 
has been expressed by the eighth-grade boy, whose 
teacher conducted her school on this plan, who said, "I 
never worked so hard before in my life, and I never had 
so good a time as this year " ; and by a teacher who said 
"This plan of having the pupils study for a purpose 
takes the grouch out of school work." If a teacher will 
try, even though clumsily, to raise questions or to 
bring up a situation which causes the pupils to ask 
questions, he will be surprised at the immediate effect 
upon the class. Interest and activity are at once appar- 
ent and are manifested by the entire class, almost 
without exception. This has been demonstrated so 
often, even in classes conducted by inexperienced 
teachers, that it seems inexcusable to neglect so ready 
a means of securing a favorable attitude toward school 
work. 



THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 91 

Summary. (1) The purpose of the lesson assignment is to 
prepare pupils for the independent study of a lesson. (2) 
The assignment may occur in connection with any lesson 
which requires such study. (3) It may be made during any 
part of a class period, being determined at times by its rela- 
tion to the preceding recitations. (4) It should develop or 
bring to mind the end to be accomplished, whether increase 
of knowledge, skill, or physical well-being; and should prepare 
for the obstacles to be met. (5) It should, when necessary, 
bring to mind the method of working, and determine sources 
of material. (6) It may consist of class or individual assign- 
ments, or both. (7) The assignment of a lesson in the mere 
form .of amount to be done, should not be employed until 
pupils have learned to study as they should without further 
direction. (8) The use of an assignment book is helpful for 
immature pupils. (9) The interest of pupils, the right emo- 
tional attitude toward the lesson to be studied should be 
aroused. 

References: T. H. Briggs and L. D. Coffman, Reading in 
Public Schools, chap, xxv; W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, 
chap, xxi; L. B. Earhart, Teaching Children to Study, chap. vm. 

EXERCISES 

1. A teacher once assigned this lesson to a fifth-grade class in geog- 
raphy. " For to-morrow, find out at home all about the exports 
and imports of the United States." Criticize the assignment. 

2. In your own experience as a pupil, did the lesson assignments 
err on the side of doing too much for pupils or of not doing 
enough to enable them to prepare the new lesson as they 
should? 

3. When does an assignment do too much? 

4. When does it not do enough? 

5. Plan an assignment for a drill lesson in spelling. 

6. Indicate an assignment in connection with a deductive lesson m 
interest, that is, a lesson in which the rules are already known. 

7. When may an assignment be made at the beginning of a lesson 
period? When must it be made at the close of a period? Give an 
instance of its occurence during a lesson. 



92 



TYPES OF TEACHING 






8. Criticize such an assignment as, "Take the next four para- 
graphs." Is such an assignment ever justified. Explain. 
Explain what you think a good assignment should include. 
How much should a teacher consider in the assignment of a new 
lesson the attitude of the class toward the lesson? What relation 
is there between attitude and lesson preparation? 
What would you expect pupils to do ultimately in the way of 
planning their own lesson assignments. 
12. What advantages are there in assigning special work to certain 
individuals which they will later report upon to the class? 
Should such assignments be made to the very bright or the very 
slow pupils? Justify your answer. 



9 
10 



11 






IX 

THE RECITATION EXERCISE 

What the recitation is 

That type of teaching exercise in which the pupils 
report the results of their study and investigations is 
called the recitation. The subject-matter thus given 
may -receive further treatment during the class exer- 
cise, but the basic feature of the lesson period is the ren- 
dering of prepared work in some form by the pupils. 

What material may constitute its subject-matter 

As the subject-matter which is assigned to pupils 
and studied by them for the purpose of increasing 
knowledge covers a wide range of material, we may 
expect the recitation to cover an equally wide range. 
The pupils may report upon as many kinds of material 
as can be assigned or studied in order to discover facts 
about them. Tasks assigned for the sake of increasing 
skill or forming habits would not form the basis of a 
recitation lesson, since they have not for their aim the 
learning of new facts. They are drill exercises. Thus, 
pupils may recite upon a lesson from a textbook or ref- 
erence book of some kind. This is a very common class 
exercise. They may give the results of observations or 
experiments which have been made in the study period. 



94 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Such recitations should frequently accompany the 
work in science, in geography, and in nature study, 
and should also be a part of the art study which sets 
pupils to looking for the artistic features in their sur- 
roundings. The information gained by inquiries made 
among people outside of school is a contribution to the 
recitation lesson. The children of immigrants, who 
question at home about living conditions in the coun- 
tries from which their parents came, often have valu- 
able material to bring to class; as have also the pupils 
who inquire about the nature of business transactions. 
From many sources, whether people, books, papers, 
periodicals, or the pupils' own experiences and obser- 
vations, information may be obtained which bears 
upon the problem raised in the assignment, and which 
may be brought to class for use there. 

Forms of the recitation lesson 

a. Verbatim reproduction of matter read. Pupils 
who lack training in the better forms of recitation work 
usually try to give the results of the study of a lesson 
from a book in verbatim forms. They know no other 
way. It has been the writer's frequent experience with 
classes of adults, that many teachers who have taught 
for several years are lacking practice and skill in any 
other form of recitation than giving the book word for 
word, and are helpless and distrustful of their own 
ability when urged to try a different method. They 
will admit that a reproduction of words in a sequence 



THE RECITATION EXERCISE 95 

does not guarantee understanding, but understanding 
may not have been required when they learned the 
habit of verbatim reproduction. They in their turn are 
not making sure that their pupils have gained in 
thought when they permit or require them to recite 
the text in this way and let the lesson end with it. If 
books contained all that the pupil should learn of a 
subject, if they were correct in statement beyond all 
doubt, and if the act of memorizing were at the same 
time the process of understanding, then rote recita- 
tions, might be accepted as satisfying the needs of a 
given situation. But since these conditions do not 
exist, then some other form of reporting work should 
be adopted. 

b. Unorganized account of reading, observation, ex- 
periment, or other investigation. It is an improvement 
upon the type of recitation just discussed to have the 
pupils give the thought in their own words, but if 
nothing further be done in the period devoted to 
the exercise, but little of value has resulted to the 
pupils. 

When facts gained from some other source than 
books or periodicals are reported in class, there is often 
a lack of coherence and clearness in the pupils' efforts, 
and to the extent that this is true the reports lack 
value. There is little or no arrangement of items in 
orderly sequence, and the ideas in regard to one topic 
are not grouped together. Pupils rush into their re- 
ports at almost any point and give facts in an indis- 



96 TYPES OF TEACHING 

criminate order. Evidently the most helpful recitation 
should be different from this type. 

c. Topical recitation. A good recitation should show 
some degree of mastery of the material gained, what- 
ever its source. There should be evidence of control of 
the subject studied. There must, then, be an order in 
the presentation of results by the pupils to the class. 
This order is secured by the arrangement of the facts 
in the form of an outline or synopsis. If a class in 
history has studied Burgoyne's invasion, the pupils 
should recite according to an outline of topics which 
they have prepared during their study. If their prob- 
lem was to find "How an attempt was made to defeat 
the colonies by separating them and what came of the 
attempt," they might take that as their heading and 
arrange the following list of topics : — 

1 . The threefold plan to defeat the colonies. 

a. The movement up the Hudson. 

b. The movement down the valley of the Mohawk. 

c. The movement down the Hudson. 

2. The fate of the Mohawk valley expedition. 

3. Why the British in New York failed in their plan. 

4. The difficulties encountered by Burgoyne. 

5. The outcome of the plan to conquer the colonies by sep- 
arating them. 

With such an outline in hand, a pupil should be able 
to stand before the class and give a coherent account 
of the lesson studied. Thus two good ends are ac- 
complished by the topical recitation; first, pupils learn 
to sift out the essential facts in a lesson and arrange 






THE RECITATION EXERCISE 97 

them in a good order for presentation; and, second, 
they learn to recite independently, clearly, and force- 
fully. They learn to hold points in mind and to follow 
them. This is not an ideal too difficult for elementary- 
school pupils to accomplish, as has been demonstrated 
by numerous classes of children from the third and 
fourth grades up. Eighth-grade pupils can prepare 
outlines and give recitations upon them which are far 
in advance of what adult classes frequently render. 
They only require to be given some training in pre- 
paring outlines and in making full and clear recitations 
according to them, and then to be held to this form of 
work consistently. They will prepare for what they 
know the teacher will require in class. 

d. Question-and-answer recitation. Classes of ques- 
tions. Teachers frequently resort to questioning in 
order to bring out in class the results of the pupils' 
study. Sometimes the whole recitation period consists 
of a rapid fire of questions of narrow scope, and of 
answers which are equally limited. "What is the capi- 
tal of Minnesota?" "In what part of the State is it 
located?" "On what river is it situated?" "When was 
itfounded?" "Bywhom?" "What are its industries?" 
"What is its latitude?" This list of questions is typi- 
cal of many recitation exercises. Such procedure is 
time-consuming, fails to bring the subject-matter be- 
fore the class in connected units, and neglects abso- 
lutely the training of pupils in habits of systematic 
study and recitation. Probably few recitation periods 



98 TYPES OF TEACHING 

will pass without some questions being asked, but 
these should be radically different from the examples 
just given. 

In preparing for a recitation exercise a teacher needs 
not only to decide about the subject-matter to be cov- 
ered, but he needs to plan for the main questions to be 
asked in case the recitation is to be conducted on the 
question-and-answer plan. He should determine what 
are the principal divisions of the subject, and what the 
corresponding questions are which will require the 
pupils in answering to cover these sections, a section 
to a question if possible. Practice in writing out a list 
of main questions will usually increase skill quickly. 

In addition to making the questions cover large 
rather than minute units of work, the teacher should 
strive to avoid so wording them that a plain clue to the 
answer is given ; that is, the question should not reveal 
the answer. The answer is indicated sometimes 
through being included in the question; as, "It was 
very wrong of Benedict Arnold to attempt to betray 
his country, was it not?" It is sometimes indicated 
by framing the question practically in the words of the 
book, so that the pupils have a direct clue if they have 
good verbal memories and can recall what the rest of 
the sentence in the textbook was. If the answer can 
be called for in such a way as to require the changing 
of the book form, a surer mastery results. If the 
teacher asks, "What are some of the difficulties in 
obtaining the world's supply of gold?" or "Why is St. 



THE RECITATION EXERCISE 99 

Paul, Minnesota, an important city?" or "Would 
St. Paul be a good city to go to for the purpose of en- 
gaging in business?" — rote answers become impossi- 
ble and the thoughtful selection of facts in their proper 
relation becomes necessary. Usually, it is better not 
to give a choice of answers through the question, as 
such questions limit the thought. To ask, "How did 
the delay in capturing Philadelphia affect the British 
plans for the campaign of 1777?" requires better 
effort than to ask, "After the capture of Philadelphia, 
did the British commander remain there or did he go 
back to New York?" 

Pupils sometimes experience difficulty in answering 
because they do not understand the question. It is 
a difficult matter to prepare a list of questions for a 
class so that all pupils will interpret them as the 
teacher intends. There is need of inspection to see that 
they are simple and clear, that they are easy enough 
for the pupils to understand, and that they lead to 
the answer the teacher has in mind. 

We have been told by some writers that the direct 
question, the question which can be answered by yes 
or no, is to be avoided. As a rule it is not the best type 
of question, since it often does the work for the class 
and simply requires a nod or a shake of the head in an- 
swer. There are times, however, when a direct question 
is provocative of good effort. "Is it a good plan for a 
new administration to make a clean sweep of the office- 
holders in the civil service?" is a question which may 



100 TYPES OF TEACHING 

result in most fruitful activity on the part of the class. 
At times a pupil who is attempting to avoid an issue 
without revealing his ignorance needs to face squarely 
the question, "Is this thing true or not?" Such a 
question is one which will arise during the recita- 
tion period and does not involve preparation by the 
teacher. 

There are other charactersitics of good questions 
which are worth striving for. Some of these are as fol- 
lows: (1) Questions should call up associated facts. 
(2) They should not be ends in themselves, but should 
carry the thought forward. (3) They should not be so 
indefinite as to permit of guesswork. (4) They should 
be interrogative in form, not declarative in all but the 
final word. (5) They should bring out the subject- 
matter in the order of dependence, or logical relation- 
ship, if such exists. 

The questions should as a rule arouse activity in all 
the class; hence they should be directed to the entire 
class rather than to an individual in the class. This 
plan precludes naming beforehand the pupil who is 
to answer the question; also asking questions in turn, 
so that pupils not near to the center of activity can 
become inattentive. 

Two cautions which many teachers need are, first 
not to repeat a question unless it is quite certain that 
the class does not understand it; and, second, not to 
repeat the answer of the pupil. The first may be un- 
necessary and leads to inattention. The second leads 



THE RECITATION EXERCISE 101 

to slovenly work on the part of the pupils. Both cause 
a loss of time. 

The amplification and correction of data collected 
by the pupils. New questions raised. Value of 
books determined 

If the recitation exercise consists solely in giving a 
topical recitation of the facts gleaned from a common 
source by all of the class, whether the topics be given 
by the teacher or prepared by the pupils, or if nothing 
more is done than to have the pupils state these facts 
in answer to the teacher's questions, only part of the 
value of the period is realized. An author's presenta- 
tion of a subject is often incomplete, and may be, at 
times, misleading. It may also be inaccurate. One of 
the most valuable features of the recitation should be 
the discussion of the reports made by the pupils in 
order to add to the statements of the text, to correct 
misconceptions, and to follow out trains of thought 
suggested. In addition to the topical outlines which 
they bring to class, pupils should bring lists of ques- 
tions suggested by the presentation in the book but 
left unanswered. Excellent work of this kind was done 
for the writer by a fourth grade in a series of reading 
experiments conducted in the Speyer School. Higher 
grades should do even better work along this line. 
Pupils who have access to other sources than the text- 
book can add much to the recitation by bringing in 
reports of what they found there which bears upon the 



102 TYPES OF TEACHING 

lesson. These reports, it scarcely need be said, should 
be presented in as good form as the textbook lesson, 
and may be kept in the class notebooks in which the 
pupils keep the outlines prepared for class, their lists 
of questions, the names of references, and other help- 
ful items. The teacher, too, should frequently have 
supplementary material to offer in the form of books, 
magazines, clippings, and the like. He may tell it, 
read it, or have some member of the class read it. He 
may also have questions to ask which bring forth fruit- 
ful discussion by members of the class. The lessons 
are made rich in content and interest by these means, 
and lose their perfunctory character. There is actual 
remaking of experience in such exercises. Ideas are 
increased in number and broadened in meaning. Pu- 
pils are more interested because they are dealing with 
problems and because they are bringing individual 
work to the class in addition to that which all have 
prepared. Such a recitation is a clearing house of ideas. 
Pupils bring their own contributions and receive from 
others. 

In addition to supplementing the text, the reci- 
tation period should clear up errors. The child who 
read that "The Pilgrims sought an asylum in Hol- 
land" and recited, "The Pilgrims went to an asylum 
in Holland," needed to have his idea investigated 
and, as it turned out, corrected as well. This instance 
represents a class of errors due to the authors' way 
of expressing their thoughts. The words are not al- 



THE RECITATION EXERCISE 103 

ways understood, nor are the sentences clear, hence 
even experienced readers sometimes differ in their in- 
terpretations of an author's meaning. Pupils with less 
experience are frequently puzzled and misled. The 
author who writes for fifth-grade pupils that "The 
Norwegians are famous for their tenacity of will," 
writes over the heads of his readers. Even so simple a 
statement as the one that "The mountains of Japan 
are too near the coast to admit of long rivers" causes 
misunderstanding, since with school children admit 
means to allow to enter. If pupils are encouraged to 
report their difficulties in class, they will bring up such 
passages as have puzzled them and which they must 
have explained in order to understand some point that 
is valuable. Other members of the class, or, as a last 
resort, the teacher, may be able to give the help needed. 
If the error is revealed through the recitation, assist- 
ance can be given through these same channels. 

In gleaning material from many sources, pupils may 
find statements which are absolutely false or of very 4 
dubious character. 

Reading must be carefully done, observations must be 
exactly taken, and things heard must be sifted before reports 
are made. Gradually, as more responsibility is put upon 
pupils for the selection of the sources of data, the children 
ought to become capable of discriminating in their judg- 
ment of these sources. They should consider why one news- 
paper should be consulted rather than another; why one 
historian or geographer should be preferred to others; and 
why certain people's reports are more to be relied upon 



104 TYPES OF TEACHING 

than others. . . . Criticism of sources will of ten come natu- 
rally, as for example, the criticism of newspapers and period- 
icals of the sensational type; of writers whose statements 
are founded on slight evidences and permeated by an un- 
friendly spirit. 

Through partisan spirit, through conscious intent 
to deceive, or through lack of reliable data, historians 
may write stateu ents which should properly be ques- 
tioned. Because of the frequent changes in boundaries 
and forms of government, geographies quickly become 
inaccurate. These are but typical cases which show 
the need of keeping a questioning attitude toward an 
author's statements. The recitation period offers one 
opportunity for this careful scanning of facts. It should 
encourage the comparison of statements drawn from 
different sources to see whether they agree, and to deter- 
mine why one statement or account should be accepted 
rather thau another. The results, both in knowledge 
and in the habit of mind formed, thoroughly justify 
such procedure. 

How the notebooks may be made helpful 

The subject of notebooks has already been referred 
to. If the pupils made no other use of them than to 
write a list of paragraph headings or a topical outline 
from the matter found in the class textbook, it would 
be worth while to employ them. Add to this the synop- 
sis of mateiial found in other places, the questions 
which come up during the study of the lesson, the 






THE RECITATION EXERCISE 105 

difficulties encountered, the names of helpful refer- 
ences, the reports of experiments or observations or 
investigations, and the like, and the notebook becomes 
invaluable. It is very different from the book in which 
the pupil writes only that which the teacher dictates, 
or writes on the blackboard for him to copy. It is the 
fruit of his own effort. It contains his-^ontributions to 
the classwork. It helps him keep truck of his difficul- 
ties as well as of important data and sources of data. 
One need only compare the preparation of such a book 
with the lesson preparation which consisted in learning 
the text verbatim. The one is mechanical; the other 
means mastery of thought. We have not yet fully 
realized how helpful an aid the notebook can be, nor 
have we utilized it as we should. 

Learning to follow the recitation in class 

When the recitation period is devoted to the mere 
reproduction of a selection from a book which all have 
read, the attention of the pupils is diHicult to hold. It 
is a psychological fact that attention soon wearies with 
monotony and must have interest or variation of some 
sort to hold it. If the recitation period is devoted to 
learning something new about the lesson, if the pupils' 
individual work is a contribution, if they are learning 
from the teacher or from the reports brought in by 
their mates, there will be little difficulty in holding 
attention. The members of the class will attend in 
order to learn what the others have to say, in order to 



106 TYPES OF TEACHING 

correct errors, and in order to add their quota to the 
classwork. If nothing new is said, if the teacher cor- 
rects all errors, and if pupils have no opportunity to 
supplement each other or the text, why should pupils 
attend or try to follow the recitation? They will follow 
if their interest is aroused and if they are made active 
participants in the exercise. There will, of course, be 
shirks, and these will have to be held closely respons- 
ible for results at times in order to keep them at work. 
Usually, the matter of securing attention takes care 
of itself when the recitation is live and worth while. 

Summary. (1) The recitation is the class exercise in 
which the pupils report the results of their study. It deals 
with subject-matter rather than drill exercises. (2) The ma- 
terial studied may be obtained from books, periodicals, or 
newspapers. It may be something observed or experimented 
with. It may be information gained through inquiries made 
in one's social group. It may be the results of one's own men- 
tal processes. (3) The forms recitation may take are the ver- 
batim report, a paraphrase of the text, the topical exercise, 
and the question-and-answer form. (4) In the recitation, 
the subject-matter presented should be amplified and cor- 
rected. Pupils should learn to weigh the value of statements 
and sources. (5) In connection with the recitation, the pu- 
pils should be required to keep notebooks in which to enter 
their outlines and summaries, questions to be discussed in 
class, sources of data, and the like. (6) Pupils should learn 
to follow the recitation in order to learn, to correct, and to 
supplement. 

References: G. H. Betts, The Recitation; J. A. H. Keith, 
Elementary Education, chaps, vni and ix. 



THE RECITATION EXERCISE 107 



EXERCISES 

1. Which do you consider more valuable in results to a class, a 
recitation lesson in which the pupils recite memorized subject- 
matter with little or no prompting, or a lesson in which the 
teacher asks many questions the answers to which are taken 
bodily from the textbook? 

2. Suggest a better form of recitation than either of those de- 
scribed in the preceding exercise. 

3. " Indeed, Washington had already shown his patriotism in many 
acts of statesmanship. There had been a time, just at the close 
of the war, when the officers of his army, disgusted with the 
government, suggested that Washington be made King. Had 
he accepted this suggestion it is very likely that our country 
would have been doomed to a military government. But the 
noble character of Washington resented the idea and he con- 
vinced his officers that they were wrong. And now once more 
he was to lead his countrymen in the paths of peace. When the 
convention came together Washington was promptly chosen its 
chairman." 

(a) Write a list of questions covering the material in the above 
paragraph which can be answered from the text. 

(6) Suggest the best possible treatment for this paragraph in 
a recitation lesson. 

(c) In what respects do you consider (b) better than (a) ? 

4. Suppose the following paragraph had been assigned to a class 
for study. What are some of the questions the pupils should 
bring to the recitation lesson for answer? 

"Under the new Constitution certain officers were' to be 
elected. Able men were chosen as members of Congress. For 
President there could be but one choice. All looked to Washing- 
ton to guide the new nation, and he was elected without any 
opposition whatever. For Vice-President, John Adams, of 
Massachusetts, was chosen." 

5. How many of the questions prepared in the preceding exercise 
might the pupils answer for themselves so that they could pre- 
sent both questions and answers during the recitation period? 

6. What value is there in having pupils present the results of their 
study according to an orderly plan? 

7. In the recitation period what responsibilities should be borne by 
the class? What by the teacher? Is this the usual way of divid- 
ing them? 



108 TYPES OF TEACHING 

8. In order that a recitation may be as profitable as possible, what 
preparation should a teacher make for it? 

9. Teachers are frequently judged by the way they conduct a 
single recitation. What in a recitation would justify you in con- 
cluding that a teacher possesses good professional ability? That 
the teacher is doing poor work? 

10. Why are recitations sometimes dull and uninteresting? How can 
the situation be changed? 



X 

THE AROUSAL AND GUIDANCE OF APPRECIATION 

The reason for this type of lesson 

Education deals with more than the gaining of 
ideas through the various senses, and with more than 
logical thinking. It is not limited to the formation of 
habits or to the establishment of physical health. In 
the general scheme to produce results through educa- 
tion, we must take all of these aims into considera- 
tion, and must include in addition the pleasures, ap- 
provals, disapprovals, appreciations of beauty, fitness, 
and harmony, and the moral and social sentiments of 
our pupils. If we wish the rising generation to care 
for good music, pictures, and literature; to be taste- 
ful in personal, household, and municipal decoration; 
to dislike the ugly, the untidy, the unclean, and the 
unfitting; and to rise to high standards of living, both 
private and civic, — we must definitely include train- 
ing for these ends in our school plans and procedure. 

It may be urged that all these ends are accomplished 
by the lessons which impart information in regard to 
these various lines of knowledge and endeavor: but 
knowledge does not always include the feeling of ap- 
preciation which affects ideals. There is a value in facts 
over and above their intellectual value as facts. There 



110 TYPES OF TEACHING 

is the appeal to interest, to emotion, to a sense of ap- 
preciation of deeper or finer significances than appear 
at first sight. The lesson or part of a lesson which is 
devoted to influencing such interest or appreciation 
may be called an exercise in appreciation. 

The kinds of appreciation to be considered 

a. Social. One important type of appreciation is 
that which has for its basis the values and needs of 
human beings whether regarded as individuals or as 
a society. A visitor to a foreign country who remains 
but a short time is likely to see only the superficial 
side of life, and because customs differ from those pre- 
vailing in his own land, he is inclined to be critical. 
A longer stay, a more intimate acquaintance gives 
deeper insight, and a resulting appreciation of ideals 
and customs which quite alters the first feeling of dis- 
approval. We have here an instance of social appre- 
ciation. 

In those subjects of the curriculum which deal with 
human life, this social appreciation may be exercised. 
In geography, history, and literature we ought not 
to fail tb^cultivate it on the basis of lofty motives, 
persistent effort, hardships overcome, and suffering 
nobly borne. The newspapers of the day are full of 
accounts of men and women, — yes, and children, — 
who in some way are serving their fellowmen, often 
at the cost of much inconvenience or suffering to them- 
selves. The splendid results are worthy of admiration, 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 111 

but it is a valuable part of education to arouse the ap- 
preciation for that which made the results possible, 
namely, the spirit and the labor of human beings. 

b. JEsihetic. In addition to the appreciations and 
interests which are based upon human conduct and 
relations, there is the whole field of pleasures and rec- 
reations in which standards need cultivation. The 
appreciations involved in lessons dealing with these 
phases of experience are known as the aesthetic appre- 
ciations. We need such appreciation in dealing with 
musk, art, literature, or other material in which good 
taste, beauty, lofty conception, and the like are in- 
volved. Since good taste, beauty, and other aesthetic 
elements are found in many forms, appreciation has 
many objects upon which it may be exercised. It does 
not require something difficult, expensive, or far away. 
It may be aroused in any environment, and by the 
work of either man or nature. Our greatest need is to 
learn to open our eyes and see the possibilities of 
aesthetic appreciation all about us. 

In what worth may consist 

Few of us have had much training in appreciation in 
any line in which it is possible; hence we are timid about 
undertaking to train our pupils. The very word (Esthe- 
tic is foreign to our tongues, and we feel that the things 
for which it stands are beyond our endeavor, to say 
nothing of the limited understanding of our pupils. 
Every teacher who attempts to influence the finer feel- 



112 TYPES OF TEACHING 

ings of his pupils should ask the question, "In what 
does the worth which is to be appreciated consist?" 
Professor Charters's x definition of subject-matter may 
serve to throw light on this point : — 

Subject-matter as a way of acting may thus be analyzed 
so as to be called a way of thinking, of feeling, and of acting 
with the body. And this helps to make the idea clearer be- 
cause it is easy to see that geography is a way of thinking 
about the earth's surface. "Crossing the Bar" is a way of 
feeling and thinking about death. The Ten Commandments 
are ways of governing our moral actions. Social customs are 
methods of acting toward other people, of feeling toward 
them or of thinking about them. 

If in literature or art or whatever we are teaching, we 
try to find out how the author or artist thinks about 
his subject, and then consider the way in which he has 
expressed his thought, the worth, or sometimes the 
lack of worth, appears. Thus worth may lie in the 
thought, or in the form of expression. 

In such a book as Silas Marner we follow the author's 
thought from step to step of the story to see how she 
develops the various characters, and to see what value 
she places upon such influences as religion, adversity, 
love of gold, and the unfeigned love of a little child 
in moulding human life. We discover, also, that the 
author planned the story with such skill that events 
seem to occur in a natural manner, and nothing takes 
place for which we have not been prepared. In the case 
of the man who was drowned, the situation was so 
1 W. W. Charters, Metlwds of Teaching, ed. of 1912, p. 34. 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 113 

presented that it seemed almost inevitable that he 
should meet such a fate. The author did not have 
to stop at a critical moment in the story to explain 
that there was a body of water in a certain locality 
and that the man was dissipated in his habits. The 
narrative is so skillfully developed that we accept the 
outcome without great surprise because it seems so 
natural. It is clear that in such a piece of literature w~ 
may appreciate both the story and the way in which 
it is told. We may do the same in music; that is, we 
may make either the author's sentiment or the tones 
through which the sentiment reaches us the object of 
approval or disapproval. 

Material sometimes has aesthetic value merely be- 
cause it is pleasing and not because it bodies forth 
some lofty conception; for example, the well-known 
picture of the boy blowing bubbles. Much of the read- 
ing matter placed before pupils is of this nature. Some- 
times the worth to be valued is something ludicrous 
or humorous. Such worth is found in Alice in Wonder- 
land, Midsummer Night's Dream, and other master- 
pieces. Some of our music is of this nature. Apprecia- 
tion of humor is not to be despised, and if one reflects 
upon the kinds of humor which many people enjoy, — 
minstrel-show humor, musical-comedy humor, mov- 
ing-picture-show humor, practical-joke humor, and 
newspaper-picture humor, — he will admit that there 
is need of elevating the standard. 

To sum up briefly the forms of worth which it is 



114 TYPES OF TEACHING 

possible to bring before the attention of pupils under 
ordinary conditions, it may be said that in literature, 
music, or art, the value may lie in the thought or feel- 
ing of the author, composer, or artist, in the form in 
which he has expressed it, or in both. The ideas may 
be noble, simply pleasing, or humorous, or may pos- 
sess some other worthy quality. The skill in expres- 
sion may lie in either the boldness or delicacy of style; 
in grandeur or in simplicity; in subtleness or in direct- 
ness; or it may take some other form. 

In nature, we admire form, as in clouds, leaves, 
crystals; colors, as in sunsets and autumn landscapes; 
massiveness, ruggedness, strength, as in mountains, 
rocks, and trees. Sometimes placidity appeals, as in 
landscapes and still waters. Again, it is variety which 
appeals, and sameness which bores. 

In regard to people, we may learn to value the qual- 
ity of their motives and ideas, or the quality of their 
acts; and as we appreciate, we approve or disapprove; 
sympathize with, or condemn; or are stirred by some 
other feeling. 

A complete presentation of the subject here dis- 
cussed in fragmentary form is out of the question. If 
a teacher will study the material he must present, and 
also that which he may present, he will find much that 
is worthy of consideration from the point of view of the 
effect it may produce upon the feelings and interests, 
the estimate of worth, the appreciation of the pupils. 
If he does not himself see these possibilities, he is not 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 115 

likely to produce much emotional effect upon his 
pupils because so much of their approval hinges upon 
that felt by the teacher. 

Some suggestions as to how appreciation may be 
aroused or influenced 

To show what pupils may be led to see and appre- 
ciate in a masterpiece, extracts from a lesson given in 
a grammar grade are hereby presented. The pupils 
had sent a letter to an art dealer, ordering some pic- 
tures for class study. These had just arrived when the 
class was visited, and among them were several copies 
of "The Gleaners," by MiUet. 

Each pupil was provided with a picture and after 
quiet examination of it, the class study began. 

" What kind of people did Millet enjoy ? " " What class did 
he picture?" Ans. "Peasants." "Why?" First pupil: "He 
was never among the better class." Second pupil: "It was 
hard for him to paint other pictures." These statements were 
challenged by others, and the statement was finally accepted 
that the artist was more interested in these people than in 
others and that he painted them for that reason. 

"The world has said that this artist's pictures are among 
the greatest painted. Why should we study them?" Ans. 
"To find out why they are so great." 

The teacher then gave the title, "The Gleaners," and ex- 
plained the old Biblical law and custom. Several pupils 
remembered that Ruth gleaned the fields. 

"Is there anything to indicate the time of day?" Ans. 
"The sun." "The short shadows." " It must be near noon- 
time." 



116 TYPES OF TEACHING 

"How much of the field do you see?" The idea was 
brought out that broad views such as the one portrayed in 
this picture are often seen in Normandy, and that the artist 
could probably see just such a scene as this from his window. 

"What is the most prominent feature of the picture?" 
Ans. "Three women." 

" Are all of the same age?" Ans. "No." 

" What makes you think they are not? " First pupil : "The 
one to the left is youngest. Her back is straightest and she is 
the most graceful." 

" Note the dress of these women." Pupils stated that they 
are dressed alike; that the clothes are very plain; that ker- 
chiefs are worn; also peasant shoes and Normandy aprons. 

" Which one is without an apron? " Ans. " The one on the 
left." 

"The one on the left has a flap over her neck. Why?" 
Ans. "Perhaps she is protecting herself from the sun." 

"Which one is the youngest?" Ans. "The one on the 
left." 

"What makes you think so?" Pupils summed up all the 
reasons already given. 

"Why are wooden shoes good for the purpose?" Ans. 
"They protect the feet against the stubble, and they do not 
wear out." 

"Are the women dressed appropriately for their work?" 
Ans. " Yes. They are dressed plainly and they wear aprons." 

"Do the women seem to belong in the field? " Ans. " Yes. 
It seems as if they came every day." 

"Millet said, 'The fitting is the beautiful.' What is there 
beautiful in this picture?" Ans. "He has the right women 
in the right field." 

"Does any one reach to the horizon? " Ans. " One does." 

"If all three did, what difference would it make?" Ans. 
"It would spoil the view. It would shut it out." 

The foreground, middle ground, and background were ex- 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 117 

amined to see what the artist had placed in each. The chil- 
dren saw that the women are represented as just ready to 
move forward, and decided which one will be the first to step 
ahead. They tried to imagine themselves in the field and 
they named the sounds they would hear, as rolling wheels, 
the sound of voices, — men's voices, because the women are 
too busy to talk, — the orders of the overseer, the sound of 
rustling grain, and the song of birds. 

" Why has the world decided this is a great picture? " Ans. 
"One can imagine one's self there." "There is so much mo- 
tion in it." "The hands of the women are so natural." "It 
is so lifelike because it looks as peasants feel." "Not many 
painted peasants." "Millet painted with meaning." 

Throughout this lesson the pupils were entering 
into the artist's thought and his method of conveying 
it, and they were also forming a basis for future judg- 
ments. The message was worth while, and the artist 
had expressed it with skill. This the children came to 
see and to appreciate to some extent. As is frequently 
the case, they noted some ideas of little value and over- 
looked some of much greater worth. Further work in 
the study of masterpieces should exercise a decided 
influence upon their understanding of art and upon 
their attitude toward it. , 

In literature, we frequently limit our efforts to 
following the thread of the thought, to getting the 
pronunciation and meanings of words, and to training 
in oral rendition. Much of the author's skill will re- 
main undiscovered and consequently unappreciated 
if nothing more than this be done, and much of the 
power of the pupils to appreciate will remain dormant. 



118 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Consider, for example, a few lines from Bryant's poem, 
"The New and the Old": — 

"New are the leaves on the oaken spray. 
New the blades of the silky grass. 
Flowers, that were buds but yesterday, 
Peep from the ground where'er I pass. 

"These gay idlers, the butterflies, 
Broke, to-day, from their silken shroud, 
These light airs that winnow the skies, 
Blow, just born, from a soft, white cloud." 

If these stanzas be presented without the title, the 
following thoughts might be brought out : — 

"What would be a good title for this poem?" (Pupils 
usually say, "Spring," or name some month, as "April," 
"May," or "June.") The month may be determined by ref- 
erence to the new oak leaves. It is sometimes necessary to 
bring out the facts that the author of the poem, William 
Cullen Bryant, lived in New England, and that the oak 
leaves in that part of the world burst forth in May, so that if 
the name of a month is to be chosen as a title, it must be 
"May." "What is there in the poem to suggest the title 
chosen?" (The idea that everything is new will finally be 
given.) "How many things are new?" "How has the poet 
expressed the newness of the butterflies? " "Of the winds? " 
"In expressing newness to how many senses has he ap- 
pealed?" "What senses are omitted?" (Sound will be men- 
tioned .) ' ' What sounds might be included ? " " Try to add a 
stanza that will include spring sounds." "Why call the but- 
terflies idlers?" "Where did they come from?" "How does 
the poet tell us where they come from?" "Where does he 
say the winds come from? " " Is he right? " "Note the use of 
winnow." "We use it to mean separating wheat from chaff, 
the good from the worthless. Could this be what the author 
meant? " " Consult dictionary for use of word and see if any 
new significance is added."^ 






THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 119 

"Follow the objects in the order that the poet saw them. 
Is the order a good one, i.e., would one see the objects in this 
sequence?" (Memorize poem if desired.) 

"The idea of spring or of newness was the author's theme 
for these stanzas. What might be written as a contrast?" 
("The Old," or "Autumn," will probably be suggested.) "If 
you were to write the contrasting part, what would you in- 
clude?" "Bryant wrote some stanzas to show a contrast 
with these. Would you like to know what he wrote?" The 
lesson may end here with the class looking forward to the 
rest of the poem which may be read later, or the pupils may 
try to write the rest of the poem themselves. 

It is more than likely that the pupils will ask some 
of the questions indicated in the treatment of this 
poem. If the teacher starts the pupils to looking, they 
will be quite sure to make discoveries for themselves, 
to find places which need explanation, and to request 
that explanations be given. 

The pupils might also contrast the author's selec- 
tion of words and his poetic form of expression with 
the words and the arrangement they would ordinarily 
use to express the same thought. "How does the au- 
thor's way differ from yours? " " Do you like his way? " 
"Which lines do you like best?" This study of form 
should follow the study of the thought, but should pre- 
cede memorizing, as it prepares the way for it. 

In taking up the study of "Lines to a Waterfowl" 
with a class of eighth-grade pupils, the teacher told the 
pupils that this poem is considered one of the greatest 
poems on nature ever written. The class at once turned 



120 TYPES OF TEACHING 

to it to discover why it is a great poem. They saw that 
it is a fine description of a solitary bird flying through 
the trackless air, and that the thought which comes 
into the author's mind of the divine power which will 
protect and guide him through life is noble and beauti- 
ful. These two points give the poem value. With some 
help the pupils discovered that, in addition to what 
the poet has expressed directly, he has told a number 
of things by implication. They found out what time 
of day it was when the bird was seen; what season of 
the year it was; in what part of the sky the bird was 
seen; the direction of its flight; and whether Bryant 
was an old man or a young man when he wrote the 
poem. His skill in thus imparting facts by implying 
them and weaving them into the main thought was 
weighed as an element of worth in the poem. 

"Thoughts that are noble and beautiful should be 
expressed in fitting language. Has the writer of this 
poem added to its worth by the way he has expressed 
his ideas?" This question was asked and led to study 
of the technical aspects. The selection and arrange- 
ment of words, phrases, or lines which appealed espe- 
cially to members of the class received attention in this 
part of the lesson, and the class passed judgment upon 
the language, selecting passages they liked best. 

In such lessons as the one just described, the appeal 
to the ear should not be neglected. Mind and eye have 
been busy with the poem, but it should not be left un- 
til it has been read aloud so that its oral beauty may 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 121 



be appreciated, because this is one of its greatest 
charms. Much of the reading material used in the 
schools has nothing to commend it to the ear. It is 
supplied either for the purpose of giving young pupils 
practice in recognizing words, or for the sake of the 
thought it conveys. Fortunately there is also a store 
of reading matter that makes its appeal to the sense of 
hearing and gives pleasure to the listener. The trouble 
is that some teachers do not discriminate, and try to 
have their pupils read aloud every word of every selec- 
tion presented, instead of skipping judiciously the 
parts ill-adapted to such a purpose. 

It is unnecessary to make suggestions for all subjects 
in the curriculum, but one more lesson will be quoted 
to show the possibilities of arousing appreciation of 
historical situations. 

A class that was studying the Civil War demanded 
rather indignantly to know why the people of Great 
Britain endeavored to break the blockade of the South- 
ern ports in order to send in supplies. Why should they 
aid the South? Some study led them to see that it was 
because British manufacturers wanted cotton. The 
teacher placed this table on the blackboard. 

COTTON IMPORTS INTO ENGLAND 



Year 


From U. S. A. 
(pounds) 


From other countries 
(pounds) 


Price per lb. 


1861 
1862 
1863 


1,290,000,000 

920,000,000 

36,000,000 


392,000,000 
597,000,000 
722,000,000 


14^ 

28^ 
5H 



122 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Teacher. "With these figures in mind, let us take a walk 
in Manchester in 1861." The ideas were suggested that mills 
were running, many people were working, and were making a 
good living. The teacher gave the information that about 
one fourth of a million workers were employed in the cotton 
mills. 

Teacher. "Would the quarter of a million workers be the 
only ones employed?" Ans. "No; there must have been 
shippers, merchants, shopkeepers, sailors, railroad men, 
truckmen, dressmakers, and others." 

Teacher. " With the mills in operation, what would be the 
condition of business?" Ans. "Business would be prosper- 
ous and everybody would have employment." 

The teacher suggested a walk in Manchester in 1862, and 
the class compared conditions with those of 1861. 

Teacher. "Come to 1863, and note conditions." Pupils. 
"Conditions are much worse. People are out of work." 
" Goods are expensive." " There is no money to buy clothes." 
"Business is dull in many lines." "Bills are unpaid because 
people have no way of earning money." 

A glimpse into these conditions answered the ques- 
tion for the pupils as to why people in Great Britain 
should seek to aid the South during the war, and it 
mollified their attitude when they learned that it was 
not merely a case of meddlesome interference. 

A person's ideas of taste and of worth are based 
upon his knowledge to a great extent. The preceding 
illustrations show this to be true. They are also influ- 
enced greatly by his attempts to do the thing himself; 
hence the suggestion that pupils try to write stanzas 
to complete the poem, "The Old and the New." In 
some of the class lessons, the pupils through their own 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 123 

activity may grow in the sense of beauty and fitness. 
Exercises in color combinations for house furnishing, 
house decorating, for dressmaking, or for applied de- 
sign may be given by means of paints, crayons, colored 
papers, dress materials, ribbons, samples of upholster- 
ing fabrics, or wall-paper samples. Sometimes good 
prints can be obtained which show the interior of fa- 
mous houses. These afford an opportunity to study 
colors, designs, and arrangement of decorations and 
furniture. Pupils can then with their own materials 
arrange and mount what they consider good combina- 
tions of color, and can profitably study and criticize 
the efforts of their fellow pupils. In connection with 
these lessons, they should observe and criticize the 
decorations of their homes and of the neighborhood. 
Possibly a generation thus trained would abolish much 
of the ugliness which now offends the public eye, and 
would substitute a more beautiful environment for it. 
In music it is possible to train pupils to feel that a 
certain quality of voice is the best one to express a 
given sentiment, while another sentiment demands 
quite a different quality. The tone and rhythm re- 
quired for a bright spring song can be contrasted 
with those suited to a song that is stately or solemn. 
Attention can be called to the variation in quality 
of voice and rate of movement in the different parts 
of the same song, according to the sentiment ex- 
pressed. The attempt to compose music suited to the 
words helps the growth of appreciation in music, just 



124 TYPES OF TEACHING 

as the attempt to write leads to better appreciation in 
literature. 

The estimate of worth, the feeling of value is greatly 
affected by the material with which it is fed, so to 
speak. If we hear colloquial English, we usually speak 
it. If we hear poor music, that is the kind we sing or 
play. In order to produce fine musical appreciation 
we should provide good music as abundantly as pos- 
sible, — good lullabies, spring songs, harvest hymns, 
winter songs, folk songs, national hymns from different 
countries; these are quite accessible and are well worth 
hearing and singing. Fortunately much good music 
is not too difficult for school children to learn, so that 
it is quite possible to put before them for mastery se- 
lections which minister to fine pleasure. 

Mechanical devices for reproducing music are in 
general use and are constantly being improved. They 
should be utilized to acquaint young people with the 
compositions of the best musical artists and with the 
world's best singers and players. If a school cannot 
buy these instruments, it can often rent or borrow 
them. People of musical ability are often willing to 
place their services at the disposal of a school on some 
special occasion. In this way fine voices and the vari- 
ous kinds of instruments can be heard. Church choirs 
can be induced to render the anthems of a composer in 
whom pupils are interested. In large cities where per- 
manent musical organizations exist, special rates for 
concerts can usually be obtained for school children. 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 125 

These are a few suggestions as to what can be done 
to further musical knowledge and taste. The main 
thing is to arouse school authorities and school teachers 
to earnest thought about their importance and their 
possibilities, and they will find ways for their attain- 
ment. 

General suggestions for the teacher 

Several suggestions for the teacher are in place be- 
fore leaving the discussion of the lesson which seeks to 
arouse appreciation. One is that knowledge must form 
its basis. A poem is not merely beautiful, a picture 
pretty, or an action noble or base. They are these be- 
cause of certain qualities in them. Appreciation must 
rest upon knowing these qualities or facts. Without 
understanding, we may have no sentiment, we may 
have the wrong sentiment, or we may be led into un- 
wise action. 

Another suggestion is that over-analysis is fatal to 
emotional enjoyment. There was a time when stu- 
dents analyzed every sentence of Paradise Lost as far 
as they went in the time allotted to that poem. Few 
will claim that this process influenced the literary ap- 
preciation of the students. It was more likely to en- 
gender a lasting dislike in the minds of the victims. 
It is not necessary to know how to pronounce every 
word and to be able to define it, in order to get the 
spirit of a good story or poem. There is danger of 
being too microscopic, of giving too much time and 



126 TYPES OF TEACHING 

effort to details. It is better to determine what the 
essential things are and let the rest pass with little 
notice. One must seek the proper mean between 
no knowledge and knowledge in such detail that it 
smothers or prevents emotion. 

Still another suggestion is that since emotional 
states are communicable and are frequently aroused 
in pupils through their imitation of the teacher, the 
teacher should keep his own emotional states alive. 
His enjoyment of music, art, literature, architecture, 
his attitude toward historical situations, present-day 
questions, vocations, amusements, civic duties, his 
approval of moral qualities, his contempt for the base, 
the cowardly, the unworthy, are quite likely to be re- 
flected in his classes. If his pupils admire him, they 
tend to follow his interests, and it behooves him to 
have worthy interests, to keep them active, and to 
make them manifest. 

A very important fact to remember is that the aes- 
thetic sense is sometimes slow in developing and that 
it is not equally distributed. Some people have more 
than others, and some are more appreciative in cer- 
tain directions than in others. In some of its aspects, 
taste may grow rapidly; in others, it progresses slowly. 
It may require a long time to elevate the taste of some 
people from "musical noise" to good music, from chro- 
mos to masterpieces, and from literary trash to literary 
classics, but the task is not hopeless. We may never 
succeed in reaching our ideal, but by perseverance and 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 127 

intelligent effort, the teacher will undoubtedly elevate 
the nature of the appreciations experienced by his pu- 
pils. One needs to be cautious about undertaking too 
much at once, and about expecting fully developed 
taste in young or undeveloped pupils. 

The final suggestion is that often the emotional state 
aroused should be directed into some channel of activ- 
ity. Self-government leagues, the Boy Scout move- 
ment, social service clubs, nature study clubs, art 
leagues, musical clubs, and the many similar organi- 
zations represent the crystallization of sentiment into 
organized activity. They are suggestive of what may 
be done with groups of pupils. The forms of activity 
for individuals are numberless. The main thing is to 
turn fine sentiment into fine action and not let it go to 
waste. 

Summary. (1) The lesson which has for its aim the 
arousal and guidance of appreciation is necessary because it 
is the purpose of education to elevate and train taste and 
feeling as well as to impart knowledge and increase skill. (2) 
The kinds of appreciation considered here are (a) social, 
which deals with human life and interests, and (b) aesthetic, 
which considers the field of recreations and pleasures in 
music, art, literature, and the like. (3) The worth to be ap- 
preciated may consist in the thought considered, in the form 
in which the thought is conveyed, in human motive or action, 
or in natural form, color, grandeur, or other element. (4) It 
is suggested to the teacher that appreciation to be intelligent 
must be based upon knowledge; also, that over-analysis of 
aesthetic elements sometimes begets disgust rather than 
appreciation. Since imitation influences appreciation, it is 



128 TYPES OF TEACHING 

advisable for teachers to learn to enjoy and approve of what 
they desire their pupils to appreciate. The aesthetic sense 
sometimes develops slowly and is not evenly distributed, and 
the teacher must therefore be patient and discriminating in 
his treatment of individuals. Emotive states are intended 
to furnish the basis for activity. The appreciations and fine 
sentiments of pupils, once roused, should function in some 
appropriate way either through individual or group activity. 

References: T. H. Briggs and L. D. Coffman, Reading in the 
Public Schools, chaps, xvm and xix; G. D. Strayer, A Brief Course 
in the Teaching Process, chap. vn. 

EXERCISES 

1. From the school textbooks in literature or reading, prepare a list 
of five things which should be used to arouse feelings of apprecia- 
tion. 

2. Prepare a similar list in history. 

3. Choose another subject in which you are particularly interested 
and select from it several incidents or situations which may be 
made the basis of appreciative feeling. 

4. We sometimes permit unsightly things to continue because we 
have never realized that they are unsightly or that they might 
be done away with. Suggest ways of making a community aware 
of ugly features within its bounds and of the means of improv- 
ing them. 

5. What might possibly be done through school children to improve 
the appearance of the neighborhood? 

6. Do you think schools would be justified in spending less time in 
teaching pupils to read music and more time in making them 
acquainted with musical masterpieces? 

7. What worth do you find for appreciation in Evangeline, Hia- 
watha, The Children's Hour, The Cotter s Saturday Night, Snow- 
Bound, The Lady of the Lake, Merchant of Venice, and Julius 
Casar ? What in Tennyson's Ulysses and Sir Galahad ? What 
in Wordsworth's Daffodils ? 

8. What is there worthy of appreciation in Michael Angelo's statue 
of David, or of Moses, or in his painting of "The Last Judg- 
ment"? 

9. Name some pictures you would select for class study for pupils 



THE AROUSAL OF APPRECIATION 129 

and some you would not select. Give the reasons for acceptance 
or rejection. 

10. Have you ever done anything to influence the kind of jokes 
enjoyed by pupils? How could the correcting of jokes for a class 
joke book be made to help the taste of the class? 

11. Cite two or three instances of pupils finding pleasure in an 
author's language. What was it that gave the pleasure? Suggest 
some means of extending pleasure in language. 

12. Why do pupils like Treasure Island, Old Ironsides, Barbara 
Frietchie, Sheridan's Ride, The Jungle Book, Black Beauty, Beau- 
tiful Joe, and Pinocchio ? 

13. How about allowing pupils to select, or at least to help select, 
the pictures to be bought for the school? 

14. Hew could dressing dolls or preparing designs to be used for 
decorative purposes be made a means of influencing taste? 






XI 

SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 

What the socializing exercises are intended to accom- 
plish 

Possibly no recent movement connected with the 
schools has been more marked than the tendency of the 
last decade to bring them into more intimate contact 
with the activities and problems of the social life of 
to-day. This movement has been influential in two 
directions. The experimental psychologists have 
raised the question of the validity of the doctrine of 
formal discipline. This doubt has caused us to ques- 
tion the advisability of conducting the schools solely 
for the sake of achieving mental discipline and culti- 
vating power to be used some time in the future. This 
changed view has in turn resulted in an inspection of 
the course of study to discover just what parts are 
being taught for the purpose of bringing about dis- 
cipline and power. 

From another viewpoint the leaders in education 
have maintained that the school should represent life 
itself and should not be regarded merely as a prepara- 
tion for life. They have urged the removal of the bar- 
riers between school and society and have insisted that 
education should be a socializing process. From their 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 131 

side they have subjected the course of study, the teach- 
ing process, and the general activities of the school to 
a searching examination to discover how they may be 
brought into harmony with these social purposes. The 
expressions, "Socializing the curriculum," "Socializing 
the school procedure," are current to-day. The pupils 
are not merely to have the mental processes, such as 
reasoning, memory, and attention, trained, but are 
to live as members of a society, and are, in learning, 
to socialize the subject-matter; that is, to give it a 
social content, to see how man has affected it, how it 
affects man, and to learn the social purposes it serves. 
This changed view of the school is far-reaching in its 
effects. Few school activities or subjects are free from 
its influence. Any exercise which tends to further social 
activity or social outlook, which gives insight into 
social conditions and usages, or which influences the 
attitude toward society, may be regarded as a socializ- 
ing exercise. 

It is at once apparent that a socializing exercise may 
be a part of any one of a number of school activities. 
It is also evident that it may at times be incidental to 
them, or that it may be their main purpose. 

Forms these exercises may take 

a. Acquisition of knowledge of social conditions, needs, 
and activities. To be intelligent in its efforts, social 
activity must be based upon a knowledge of the con- 
ditions in which it is to operate. But being social does 



132 TYPES OF TEACHING 

not always involve actual physical activity. It may, 
and often does, mean putting forth effort to help others 
but it may mean possessing an interest in people, being 
sympathetic, cherishing an attitude of helpfulness. 
When opportunity arises these social feelings tend to 
reveal themselves in action. 

But interests and attitudes are based upon knowl- 
edge of some kind, and the increasing of knowledge is 
one of the functions of the school. Any school exer- 
cise is a socializing exercise, in which the subject-mat- 
ter is made to yield its content in such a way as to 
throw light on the lives of people, their occupations, 
their joys and sorrows, their achievements, their so- 
cial institutions, the conditions under which they live, 
whether geographical, political, or economic, and the 
like. Much of the teaching from day to day may thus 
be socializing either directly or incidentally. This is 
especially true in the elementary schools where the 
purely scientific aspect of the various subjects is not 
the main purpose of teaching. Experience is to be re- 
made in the direction of more socialized content. It 
would be scientifically correct to give the exact and the 
relative location of Russia, to describe its surface and 
its climate, to state its form of government, and to 
name the present ruler, but such an exercise would be 
negative in its influence upon the social interests and 
attitude of the pupils because of its lack of social con- 
tent. The needs of the people socially, industrially, 
and politically as revealed by the recent emergence 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 133 

from serfdom, by the educational situation, by the 
lack of general religious freedom, by the struggles to- 
ward political independence, by the backward stage 
of development of agriculture and manufacturing, and 
by other facts which may readily be obtained, — these 
introduced into a lesson result in social insight and 
social interest, and transform a lesson of mere fact into 
a socializing exercise. 

The possibilities of presenting subject-matter in 
such a manner as to increase social knowledge and to 
influence the feelings of pupils have not been fully 
grasped. Possibly some teachers will admit that in 
geography, history, and literature these ends may be 
reached to some extent, but they can see no social bear- 
ing in art, music, arithmetic, and the other subjects of 
the curriculum. It is possible that the social bearing is 
there and that the teachers have not seen it because 
they have not looked for it. Some suggestions in re- 
gard to content of this nature will be presented later 
in this chapter. 

In addition to the social possibilities of the content 
of the subject-matter employed, there are opportuni- 
ties of making class exercises social through the use 
made of the subject-matter and through the means em- 
ployed to prepare and present lessons. When foreign 
languages are taught by the conversational method, 
instead of through the grammar; when letters are 
written and sent to real people; when pupils tell time 
so as to keep track of their lessons or to know when to 



134 TYPES OF TEACHING 

go home; when they add or count so as to distribute 
supplies or keep score in a game; when they measure 
materials and compute cost in sewing, manual train- 
ing, or cooking, — social values and usages appear 
which justify us in considering such exercises as social- 
izing. Intrinsic functions are employed, and these, 
by definition, are social. A thoughtful principal in one 
of the schools of New York City undertook to teach 
the pupils who had just come from continental Eu- 
rope to give the correct sounds of ih, ch, and wh by 
having them make the sounds over and over again. 
They learned to give the sounds correctly, but did not 
use them in speaking. She then gave lists of words 
containing the sounds. These lists were mastered, and 
still the speech did not show the effect of the exercise. 
It was only after drill on ordinary sentences in which 
these sounds occurred that correct usage was finally 
secured. This principal's experience is suggestive of 
much that may be done to socialize subject-matter by 
placing it in its proper setting, and making it serve its 
intrinsic function. Its value is enhanced in the minds 
of the pupils, and mastery of usage as well as knowledge 
of the service it renders is furthered. 

b. School activities involving cooperation or considera- 
tion of the welfare of others. Suggestions as to socialized 
work on the part of the pupils are given in the chapters 
on the assignment and the recitation. When the same 
assignment is given to all pupils, when the recitation 
consists in saying to the teacher what has been read 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 135 

in books or what the teacher told the class in lecture 
form, when helping others is frowned upon, then it is 
a case of each pupil for himself, — of the survival of 
the fittest, the fittest being those who can attend regu- 
larly and memorize readily. When, on the contrary, 
individual members of the class undertake to prepare 
a certain part of the lesson to report to their class- 
mates, then efforts assume a social value, since they 
are working not only for themselves but for others. 
The pupil who ascertains for the class how much coal 
costs per ton, or what brass is, or to whom violations 
of the fire ordinances should be reported, or renders 
any service for his fellows, is performing a socializing 
exercise. He may make a piece of apparatus, invent 
a game, find material of some kind, or search out knowl- 
edge ; so long as it is done for the class and not for his 
selfish gratification, it must be classed as social. 

Another exercise of this nature is the group work in 
school. An assignment is made to a group of pupils, 
or the group volunteers to accomplish a piece of work. 
Group work means the selection of a leader, loyalty 
to the leader, the division of labor, and the faithful 
performance of the work assumed; in short, it means 
cooperation. It includes not only working with others, 
but also, when occasion demands, working for others. 
The group may not only prepare work upon which it 
reports to the class, but within the group, service is 
frequently rendered by one member to another by 
sharing materials, or by helping with outlines, charts, 



136 TYPES OF TEACHING 

or other work. It is a distinctly social situation and 
as such has value aside from the knowledge gained 
through it. 

These group assignments are helpful in connection 
with geography in studying such subjects as polar 
explorations, the industries of a given city or country, 
the digging of the Panama Canal, the means employed 
to offset the lack of rainfall in the Western States, and 
many other topics. 

In history, where there is so much ground to be 
covered, there is ample opportunity to employ group 
work as a means of saving time. Such topics as the 
following are merely suggestive: (1) The relative merits 
of the claims of the French and English to the Ohio 
Valley; (2) the treatment of the Indians by the vari- 
ous nations which explored America; (3) the territory 
explored or claimed by European nations in North 
America; (4) the forms of government in the colonies 
before 1776; (5) the Revolutionary War from the 
standpoint of America and Great Britain; (6) the 
story of slavery in this country; (7) the political par- 
ties which have existed in the United States. 

In civics, the subject of street cleaning makes an 
excellent group assignment. Individuals in the group 
can organize and assign the subject under such sub- 
heads as snow removal, garbage removal and disposal, 
the work of the sweepers, the mechanical devices em- 
ployed in street cleaning, and how the public can aid 
in the effort to keep a city clean. The individuals can 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 137 

prepare their parts, and the subject then can be pre- 
sented as a whole before the class with profit to all 
concerned. 

In cooking, sewing, and manual training it is not at 
all uncommon to find several pupils working on one 
project, whether it be baking a cake, making a dress, 
or constructing some article of furniture. 

In dramatization, the group may either present a 
story, which has already been put into dramatic form, 
or the members may write the play and then give it 
before an audience. 

A committee on music selects and gives a musical 
program, arranges to have others give it, or composes 
a class song, or other exercise. Here again is group 
work, cooperative effort put forth for the class or 
school. 

The subjects cited are by no means all that afford 
opportunity for group activity. In literature, in art, 
in science, as well as in other subjects of the elementary 
and high-school curricula, many topics and situations 
can be handled to advantage in this manner. Debat- 
ing necessitates it; other exercises afford occasions for 
its employment. 

In addition to the school exercises which have for 
their object the gaining of knowledge and the influ- 
encing of social outlook, there are many school activi- 
ties which are socializing in their influence. One of these 
exercises is the school housekeeping which is done by 
members of the class and which includes the care of 



138 TYPES OF TEACHING 

cupboards, blackboards, window sills, plants, birds, 
fish, school supplies and apparatus. Many teachers 
never think of delegating this work to others; conse- 
quently they tire themselves out in performing it and 
deprive the pupils of the opportunity of being helpful. 
The plays and games and athletic sports of a school 
are essentially social in nature. A pupil must be a 
good fellow, he must play the game, doing his part and 
being either a good winner or a good loser. If the leader 
sends him to a subordinate position, he must learn to 
take his place and do his best there. Team work is the 
great factor in many of the school sports, and conse- 
quently a player must expend effort not merely for his 
own sake, but for the sake of his team and his school. 
The school in which the pupils are as "dumb, driven 
cattle," doing what they are told, as they are told, 
when they are told, and the school in which the pupils 
do what they please, as they please, when they please, 
represent the extremes of tyranny and license, and in 
neither type is there adequate opportunity for the 
development of the social virtues. Through the or- 
ganization and discipline of a school much can be 
done to afford practice in effective social work without 
having scholarship at a low ebb, or responsibility and 
obedience lost sight of. The election of class officers 
to report absences and tardiness, to take charge of 
the classes when the teachers are summoned from 
the room, to conduct the classes through the corridors, 
and at dismissal to marshal the lines out of the build- 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 139 

ing; and the use of monitors to take charge of yards 
and corridors, to look after the condition of the build- 
ing, and to care for the pupils' wraps and hats, are two 
suggestions as to what can be done in this direction. 
If these school and class officers be elected by the pu- 
pils, the effect upon both the school and the officers 
thus chosen is often better than when some one in 
authority appoints the pupils to perform these func- 
tions. The ideas of choosing those whom they know 
to be most worthy and most capable, and then of ren- 
dering prompt obedience to the officers of their own 
choosing, can be instilled through conferences with 
the pupils or in talks by teacher or principal when 
proper occasion offers. 

The extent to which pupils may participate in school 
government with benefit to themselves and to the 
school, will vary with the nature of the school and, it 
may also be said, with the nature of the principal. 
Some principals, in order to conduct a school on such 
a plan, would have to be made over because of their 
predisposition to exercise control, or because of the 
habit of absolute rule formed by years of experience. 
Wisdom, patience, tact, all are necessary in undertak- 
ing and carrying out the plan of giving the pupils a 
share in the school discipline and management. On 
the other hand, some bodies of pupils are better pre- 
pared to assume such participation than others and 
can safely take a larger responsibility. They have more 
background in the way of knowledge and attitude. But 



140 TYPES OF TEACHING 

as both of these are the result of education, whether 
in school or out, it is possible that those less well 
fitted at first for such duties may be prepared by de- 
grees to assume more responsibility. The George Jun- 
ior Republic represents the fullest embodiment of the 
plan of self-government, but it is not a school, and its 
economic and social necessities cannot be fully repro- 
duced in any ordinary school. Its plan of operation, 
however, suggests much that is valuable to those who 
are in charge of schools. ' 

The school organizations controlled entirely or in 
part by pupils are recognized more and more to have 
a decided value because of the social training and dis- 
cipline they afford. Some of these are the sewing club, 
cooking club, nature study club, walking club, school 
garden association, literary society, glee club, school 
orchestra, and the debating society. Probably no 
school will have all of these clubs in operation, but it 
would be the exceptional school which could not most 
helpfully have some of them. 

c. Organization of activities which function in the 
school neighborhood or community. In addition to the 
clubs and societies which work for themselves and the 
school, there are several which the school can set in 
operation which reach over into the homes and the 
neighborhood in their operations. One of these is the 
Social Service League, the members of which pledge 
themselves to strive for cleanliness and fresh air, to 
abstain from throwing rubbish into the streets, to 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 141 

keep from destroying or marring property, and to in- 
fluence others to follow the same aims. Others are 
the Little Mothers' Clubs, the Parents' Associations, 
and similar societies. In these clubs, home, school, 
and neighborhood are brought into very close contact 
and made mutually helpful. 

Helps which the teacher may employ in developing 
social insight, attitudes, and habits 

a. Social instincts of pupils. The fundamental help, 
without which no efforts to socialize can succeed, lies 
in the instincts possessed by the pupils to be trained. 
Several of these instincts furnish a direct basis for the 
training proposed and should be called into play or 
given the opportunity to develop naturally instead 
of being repressed. Among these native tendencies are 
the instinct to imitate, to do as others do; the gregari- 
ous instinct, or the instinct to seek the society of one's 
kind; the instinct to emulate, and the instinct to out- 
do others, both of which can be turned to social use; 
the dramatic instinct; the instinct of leadership; 
and the instinct to be kindly, sympathetic, helpful. 
This most helpful inheritance ought to be utilized 
much more fully ^han it ever has been and made to 
function freely. All too frequently we neglect it for 
the sake of imparting a body of facts or for a dubious 
amount of mental training. Knowledge should be im- 
parted and minds should be trained, but this other 
large field should not be left uncultivated. 



mil 

" mu: 
wit 



142 TYPES OF TEACHING 

b. Subject-matter. A second help which the teacher 
may call to service is the subject-matter. Some of the 
possibilities have already been suggested in this chap- 
ter. The trouble is that the social possibilities are only 
infrequently suggested by the books and the teacher 
must seek them himself. A few lines of effort are here- 
with suggested. 

The teacher who caused her class to see that the peo- 
ple of Great Britain who attempted to run the block- 
ade of the seaports in the Southern States during the 
Civil War, did so because of economic conditions among 
the manufacturing classes, socialized the lesson. A 
lesson in manual training, such as weaving, which leads 
to the study of that industry, of how people have devel- 
oped the process, of the great mills devoted to it, of the 
number of workers, their wages, their housing, the labor 
of women and children, the attempts to protect the lives 
and interests of these people, of efforts toward social 
improvement, and the like, is a socializing lesson. 

Civics, a subject which deals exclusively with social 
activity, has great possibilities in the way of increasing 
social insight, interest, and activity. Frequently it 
deals only with the form of government, the election 
and duties of public officers, and similar material. Dr. 
Thomas J. Jones, of the United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation, makes these suggestions in regard to it : — 

Good citizenship should be the direct aim of the high- 
school courses in social science and history. Good citizenship 
is the test that must be applied to every topic in these courses. 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 143 

Facts, conditions, theories, activities, which do not contribute 
directly to the appreciation of methods of human better- 
ment, have no claim on the time of the high-school pupil. . . . 
Every pupil should know, of course, how the President of the 
United States is elected; but he should also understand the 
duties of the health officer in his community. It is the things 
near at hand and socially fundamental which should be 
taught first of all. Comparatively few persons have any need 
of knowledge of congressional procedure, but every citizen 
should know what are the chances of employment for the 
average man. 

Some of the topics suggested by Dr. Jones are com- 
munity health, housing and homes, pure food, public 
recreation, good roads, parcel post and postal savings, 
community education, poverty and the care of the 
poor, crime and reform, family income, savings banks 
and life insurance, human and material resources of 
the community, human rights versus property rights, 
impulsive action of mobs, and the selfish conservatism 
of tradition, public utilities, like street-car lines, tele- 
phones, and light and water plants. "The purpose 
is not to give the pupil an exhaustive knowledge of 
any of these subjects, but to give him a clue to the sig- 
nificance of these things to himself and to the com- 
munity, and to make him want to know more about the 
conditions under which he lives. It is to help him 
think civically, and, if possible, to live civically." 

Arithmetic, which has to do with computations, 
yields much in the way of socializing content when it 
is pressed into service to throw light on amounts and 



144 TYPES OF TEACHING 

values as they affect social life. A third grade in the 
Speyer School of Teachers College found out from the 
firemen across the street how much oats and hay were 
fed to the horses daily and how much they cost. Then 
they set themselves a number of problems, such as 
finding how much it cost to feed one horse per day, 
how much it cost to feed all the horses in that engine 
house per day, how much for a week and for a month. 
Then they found out how many pieces of hose there 
were in the engine house, the length of a section and 
the cost per foot, and computed the entire cost. This 
exercise soon began to arouse their wonder over the 
amount it must cost the city to keep up its many en- 
gine houses, because, they reasoned, there were en- 
gines, hose carts, hook-and-ladder wagons, and horses 
to be bought, and the men had to be paid for their serv- 
ices. Through a messenger to the fire chief, they 
found the average number of fire calls per day and the 
estimated cost of each call. Their computations simply 
gave them a glimpse into great numbers, as they could 
not grasp their full significance, but they gained an 
appreciation of the extent and cost of the department 
which they did not have at the beginning, and even 
discussed gravely how very bad it was to send in false 
alarms just for fun, since it cost the city so much 
money. 

Another class in a third grade investigated the re- 
moval of snow from the block in which the school was 
located. The pamphlet containing the city require- 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 145 

ments in regard to removals was obtained from the 
street commissioner. The removal was paid for by the 
cubic yard. The size of a cubic yard was determined by 
using the yardstick and by placing pupils at the corners 
of the yard-square space laid off on the floor. The 
yardstick itself gave the height when held with one end 
resting on the floor by one of the boys who marked the 
corners. The carts and wagons removing snow were 
plainly marked so as to show capacity in cubic yards. 
The numbers of several were taken and an average 
capacity estimated. The price per cubic yard being 
given in the pamphlet, the cost of a load was reckoned. 
Through inquiry the pupils learned how many trips a 
cart could make to the dumping place in a day. Then 
they computed the earning of one cart for a day, and 
the earnings of the total number of carts working in 
the block. 

The pupils in Connersville, Indiana, who undertook 
to decide whether it would be better to go to Oregon 
or to Georgia to engage in fruit-growing, had to social- 
ize the exercise of letter-writing and the subjects of 
geography and arithmetic in order to communicate 
with railroad companies, and agents of land companies; 
to determine conditions of soil and climate, also trans- 
portation facilities; and to compute cost of transpor- 
tation, cost of land, cost of cultivation, of yield per 
acre, of probable profit, and the like. And the group 
of pupils in the same city who undertook to select a 
lot and plan a house, the cost of which was to be 



146 TYPES OF TEACHING 

kept within a stipulated amount, had a most socializ- 
ing experience. The prices of real estate in their own 
city, the desirability of locations, the way excavations 
are computed, how masonry is laid and what it costs, 
making contracts, the purchase and cost of materials, 
even to the electric wiring, were all a part of their edu- 
cation in connection with this series of problems. 

The study of foreign languages, whether ancient or 
modern, contains possibilities of contributing to social 
insight and interest if it be so considered that, instead 
of being a mere exercise in translation, composition, 
analysis, and parsing, it is made to throw light upon 
the life and customs of the peoples among whom these 
languages are or were the mother tongue. 
Vc. Organization of school. Community help. A third 
help lies in the form of organization and the helpful 
participation of pupils in the discipline and other ac- 
tivities of the school. A fourth possible source of help 
lies in the cooperation of parents and officials. In some 
communities school credit is given for practice at home 
of cooking, sewing, gardening, and manual training. 
With help from parents, such an arrangement unites 
home and school closely. If representatives from the 
various municipal organizations can be secured to talk 
to the pupils about fire prevention, use and care of 
parks, how pupils can help the department of street 
cleaning, and upon similar topics, interest, and con- 
duct governed by interest, are quite sure to result. 

d. The teacher's own spirit and attitude. One of the 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 147 

greatest helps is the teacher's own attitude toward, 
and his enthusiasm in, this cause. A tyrannical, carp- 
ing, critical teacher or principal renders social efforts 
useless. He is out of sympathy with them and acts as 
a damper to all enthusiasm and interest. But with 
interest and enthusiasm present, the teacher must 
employ common sense, and keep the pupils within the 
bounds of what they can accomplish. Too rapid ex- 
pansion usually brings failure and disgust. "Slow and 
steady" is better than allowing enthusiasm to run 
away with even a good cause. 

e. Miscellaneous helps. There are several miscella- 
neous aids which should not be overlooked. The news- 
papers and periodicals present much valuable material 
to add to social knowledge and interest and should be 
used for that purpose. A good, up-to-date bulletin 
board is very helpful. Pictures are often very revealing 
in their presentation of people and conditions, whether 
prepared by the artist or obtained by means of a cam- 
era. The stereopticon and the moving pictures are be- 
coming more and more educational in their use. The 
stereoscope, usually of easier access, is also an excel- 
lent aid in imparting knowledge and arousing interest. 
Doubtless the teacher will be able to suggest a number 
of other means of furthering these purposes. 

A caution is possibly in order in closing this chapter. 
We need to train pupils to lead, to cooperate, to serve 
school, home, and community, to lend a hand when it 
is needed. But we must not lose sight of the fact that 



148 TYPES OF TEACHING 

there are frequent occasions when every member of a 
class must be held individually responsible for the 
learning of certain lessons and the performance, of cer- 
tain exercises. These cannot be delegated to some 
kind-hearted friend. They must be done by each for 
himself. This is imperative, and we must not overlook 
it, otherwise there is disintegration and confusion, as 
some have discovered at a heavy cost. Good sense is 
just as necessary here as in most places, and must be 
exercised for the sake of the class and the school. Each 
teacher should follow some lines of socializing work 
with his class, but he should remember that the pupils 
are in school because they are immature and need help. 
They must be kept within certain limitations both as 
to amount and methods of undertaking, and the teacher 
must be a partner ever to be reckoned upon, though 
he may at times be a silent one. 

Summary. (1) The socializing exercises are intended to 
give insight into social needs, conditions, and customs; to 
arouse interest, and affect the attitude of the pupils toward 
society; and to give practice in social service. (2) These 
exercises may take the form of classwork and study; of 
school activities involving cooperation or the consideration 
of others; of organizations and activities which function out- 
side of the school. (3) In accomplishing the desired results 
the teacher may employ the instincts of the pupils, the sub- 
ject matter and supplementary material, the school organi- 
zation, the cooperation of parents and of public officers, and 
his own interest and enthusiasm. He should resort to the use 
of newspapers, periodicals, pictures, the stereopticon, stereo- 
scope, moving pictures, talks from officials, and other means 



SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 149 

of gaining social knowledge or arousing interest and shaping 
opinion. (4) The necessity of work from the class as a whole 
and of individual responsibility should not be overlooked. 

References: — Teachers College Record, vol. iv, no. 2; vol. xni, 
no. 5; G. H. Betts, Social Principles of Education; Colin Scott, 
Social Education; Briggs and Coffman, Reading in the Public 
Schools, chap, xxvi; John Dewey, School and Society; W. C. 
Bagley, Educational Values, chaps, ix-xv. 

EXERCISES 

1. "Pupils have sufficient opportunity outside of school hours to 
exercise their social side. The school should spend its time im- 
parting knowledge." Argue either for or against this view. 

2. If schools are to be regarded as a part of society and not a prepa- 
ration for life in society, what changes must be made in them to 
meet the situation? 

3. Illustrate the socializing of arithmetic through its subject- 
matter. Through the method of teaching it. 

4. In a similar way, illustrate the socializing of composition. 

5. Show how, through resort to group work, much more subject- 
matter can be studied in geography than would otherwise be 
possible. What effect will such work be likely to have upon the 
interest of the class? 

6. Plan three entirely different assembly exercises which are to be 
prepared through appeal to the social interests of pupils. 

7. What value is there in school housekeeping by pupils, aside from 
the fact that the room is kept in order? 

8. If you have ever observed self-government in operation in a 
school, tell of its most serious faults and its greatest virtues as 
you saw them. 

9. Is it wise to give pupils no responsibility in school discipline? 
Is it wise to give them all of the responsibility? 

10. Some pupils have a capacity for leadership, for managing people. 
They sometimes employ this capacity in harmful ways. Is the 
capacity one which should be suppressed or one which should be 
utilized in helpful ways? Is it always easy to utilize it? 

11. How much social development is a teacher likely to accomplish 
in his class who himself is not interested in social conditions and 
who regards his teaching merely as a means of earning a salary? 

12. How can the subject-matter relating to Argentina be socialized? 
Illustrate. 

13. What possible social content is there to the subject of decimals? 



XII 

THE FORMATION OF HABITS AND THE INCREASE 

OF SKILL 

Reason for such exercises 

In addition to the various types of teaching which 
aim to increase knowledge and to arouse aesthetic and 
social appreciation, there are school exercises which 
have as their main purpose the increase of skill and 
the rendering of certain processes automatic or habi- 
tual. In regard to skill, Thorndike x says : — 

No one would assert that skill is the total aim, and no one 
would deny that it is a fraction of the aim, of education. The 
chief facts about it which are likely to pass unnoticed are, its 
appropriateness where the effort to give knowledge is rela- 
tively wasteful, and its service as an impersonal pleasure. 
Skill, as in the trades or household arts, can be got, even in 
high degree, by boys and girls who, by lack of capacity or 
interest, or both, can get little knowledge of general princi- 
ples. So, in proportion as schools are attended by a wider 
and wider selection and retain the unscholarly types till six- 
teen or eighteen instead of till twelve or fourteen, skill be- 
comes properly a larger and larger factor in their proximate 
aims. Skill may also be, for almost all individuals to some 
extent, a source of impersonal pleasure. The taste for work- 
manship — the impulse to do the job as it should be done, 
making a first-rate product by fit means — is one of the most 
easily developed, but also one of the best, virtues. It is com- 

1 E. L. Thorndike, Education, chap. hi. 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 151 

monly more truly cultural or refining than an interest in cor- 
rect manners, speech, or opinions about the fine arts, because 
it is commonly more sincere and less tainted with ostentation. 

Whether we become hewers of wood and drawers of 
water, whether we become artists, or whatever our 
walk in life, our hope of getting along at all lies in learn- 
ing to respond in definite ways to the situations which 
daily and hourly confront us. Fortunately for us, 
nature has so constituted us that we tend to repeat 
associations once formed, to act as we have acted be- 
fore; so that our responses, our thoughts, our actions 
tend to become habitual. We form the habit of asso- 
ciating ideas with things in the outside world, as when 
we hear a series of sounds and think "Star Spangled 
Banner"; we associate ideas with other ideas, as when 
we think "Star Spangled Banner, battleship in the 
harbor, lowering the flag, sunset*'; and we associate 
ideas with actions, as when the thought of sunset leads 
us to turn our faces to look at the sky. Once having 
associated certain objects, ideas, and actions, we tend 
to put them together in the same way again, as shown 
by the illustrations given. 

The object of this tendency to make associations 
habitual is to enable us to master our surroundings, to 
think, to communicate with others, to preserve exis- 
tence, to make progress. Since the school is vitally 
interested in all of these purposes, it ought to further 
the operations of this very important native tendency 
and to employ it whenever any phase of school activity 



152 TYPES OF TEACHING 

possesses elements which should be made automatic. 
Automatism means the saving of time, the freeing of 
consciousness for other tasks, and may be made to 
mean a high degree of efficiency. The school exercises 
which have for their object the rendering of certain 
associations and acts automatic are called drill lessons. 

The field included in habit-forming exercises 

Dr. Rowe, 1 who has treated exhaustively the sub- 
ject of habit-formation, says: — 

Of the subjects taught in the elementary schools, reading, 
writing, arithmetic, composition, spelling, singing, drawing, 
and other forms of manual work have habit-forming rather 
than information as their direct aim. Nature study, geogra- 
phy, history, and civics deal rather with the acquiring of 
information, the organizations of facts. Some of these organ- 
izations need to become automatic, in order that rapid use 
may be made of them in relating new material, and others 
may contribute important aid in the formation of disciplin- 
ary or moral habits. History, especially, without furnishing 
much material for direct habit-formation, indirectly contri- 
butes abundantly to morality and the habits implied in char- 
acter by making concrete the ideas underlying such habits, 
by furnishing initiative through suggested motives, by mak- 
ing a basis for practicing habits of approval or disapproval, 
or by showing the painful, serious, and unfortunate results of 
lapses. 

In the high school, language subjects, mathematics, and 
the arts are largely habit-forming, while science, history, 
literature, and the like are informational, with occasional 
organizations to be made automatic. 

1 S. H. Rowe, Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching, 
chap. xiii. 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 153 

Any subject which contains elements, whether ideas 
or acts, which may be used as responses to certain 
situations without one's stopping to think about the 
matter, possesses to that extent the possibility of hab- 
it-formation and of drill to secure the habit. In learn- 
ing to spell, we form the habit of using letters in a 
certain order. In learning to read, we associate certain 
sounds with certain letters or groups of letters, and 
associate meaning with written or printed words and 
sentences. In writing, we reduce certain movements 
to the stage of habit. In counting and in. the multipli- 
cation table, we learn numbers in definite order and 
also in combinations. We form the habit of thinking 
and saying 42 when we see 6X7. In music we form 
the habits of reading the signature, of reading notes 
on the staff, of singing as notes indicate, of making 
tones of certain quality, and the like. In composition 
we acquire habits of punctuation, of indenting, of us- 
ing capital letters, of writing paragraphs, of forming 
correct sentences, of choosing words with care, and 
other habits peculiar to the subject. Committing to 
memory is simply another phase of habit-forming, 
since we associate words in an order which we there- 
after follow. We make this order a habit. In draw- 
ing, the holding of pencil or brush, the stroke, the 
manner of shading, the way of mixing colors, and 
other details are all possible habits. In geography, 
the interpretation of globes, maps, and charts is 
a matter of habit, as is also the learning by heart 






154 TYPES OF TEACHING 

of capitals, rivers, and the factors which influence 
climate. 

In manual training, the use of the plane reduces to 
the automatic, as does the use of thimble and needle 
in sewing, and the beating of batter and the whipping 
of eggs in cooking. There is so much of education 
which consists in reducing actions or associations of 
ideas to the automatic state, and the process of habit- 
forming is so important and so definitely known, that 
every teacher should inspect the material and processes 
he is to give his class in order to discover what part 
should be made a mental or physical habit, that is, 
made a matter of mental or physical memory. 

It will not do to say, "It is enough if the pupils once 
understand. They will remember if they understand.'* 
The trouble with this theory is that it usually fails to 
work. Nor will it suffice to leave the amount and kind 
of drill to the judgment of the pupils. This procedure, 
also, is a failure when viewed in the light of conse- 
quences. There must be drill, and the drill must be 
intelligently conducted if certain facts are to be learned 
as permanent possessions and if certain acts are to be 
performed automatically. 

Procedure in habit-formation 

In lessons to form habits, as in other exercises, it is 
essential that the pupils feel some reason for the work, 
are aware of a motive, in order that they may bring 
intelligence, interest, and energy to bear upon it. If 






THE FORMATION OF HABITS 155 

they make y's poorly or slowly, it is not difficult to 
make them realize the fact and to want to do better. 
They know if they spell poorly, if they write numbers 
slowly, if certain combinations of letters are always 
difficult to sound; or they can easily be made to realize 
it. A little boy in a first grade left the reading-line, 
went to the blackboard, and, placing an accusing fin- 
ger on a combination of letters in a word, said, "That 
always sticks me." He knew his difficulty and the 
drill he promptly received was shared energetically 
by him. A third-grade class, at the close of an exer- 
cise, in which the cost of a meal for a needy family had 
been computed, was asked what they had found out. 
One of the replies was that they needed drill on the 
multiplication table of 6's. Here, again, was conscious- 
ness of a definite lack or need. Making pupils con- 
scious of the purpose or motive of the drill exercise is 
the first step to be taken. 

The sources of motive are varied. As indicated in 
the preceding paragraph, one source is the realization 
of a definite practical need. Children are aware of the 
need of accuracy and rapidity in number combinations 
in order to distribute supplies; to make plans for gar- 
den plots; to measure materials for manual work and 
compute its cost; to solve such problems as those in- 
volved in dealing with snow removal and the fire de- 
partment as discussed in another chapter. They wish 
to write well enough to be able to write notes to their 
parents; hence the necessity of drill to bring this about. 



156 TYPES OF TEACHING 

They must read well to make out the interesting sto- 
ries or to be permitted to visit another class and read 
a story to it; therefore they must practice. The class 
in geography may need a drill lesson because of inabil- 
ity to read maps readily, to interpret isothermal lines, 
or to apply the factors influencing climate. They can 
be made aware of this need and usually know their 
weakness quite as well as the teacher. They know, 
too, that they cannot write numbers accurately and 
that many errors are due to that fact; that they cannot 
read music rapidly and that accidentals in music are a 
calamity. If asked, "What is the trouble?" they are 
usually ready, like the small boy with his hard word, 
to point out definitely the thing they need. Sometimes 
this need is practical, as in the instances cited; some- 
times it is aesthetic. The thing done does not come 
up to the ideal, as in the quality of lines, the applying 
of colors, the composition of pictures, the formation 
of good paragraphs, the writing of a good introduction. 
One may work accurately and rapidly and still fail of 
aesthetic quality in the product. Here again is a mo- 
tive in realizing the discrepancy between what one has 
done and what one ought or would like to do. 

Children will expend great amounts of interest, 
energy, and time in drilling on material that is to be 
used in some kind of competitive exercise such as a 
spelling-match. They will drill on lists of countries 
and capitals, on events and dates in history, and on 
any material which can be employed so as to pit one 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 



157 




group of pupils against another. Pupils have been 
known to practice vigorously so that they might lower 
the time in which their row in school could spell a hun- 
dred words and so beat all the other rows. This class 
was fairly accurate, but was very slow in oral spelling. 
This exercise cured the defect. Competition of group 
against group is a very effective motive for drill. 

A pupil will often work to improve his own record, 
thus competing with himself through practice. The ac- 
companying device is effec- 
tive with some children: — 

A pupil who needs drill 
in spelling is given a card 
with a diagram similar to 
the figure drawn on it so 
that he can indicate his own 
standing every day for a 
week. On the diagram here 
given it is supposed that 
the pupil's standing on 
Monday was 60 per cent. 

A cross is placed on the vertical line for Monday beside 
the number 60. On Tuesday, the standing is 80. The 
pupil places a cross on the vertical line for Tuesday 
opposite the 80 and draws the line from the Monday's 
record to the Tuesday's record to show the direction 
he has traveled. On Wednesday his grade is 90. Again 
he places the cross and draws the line, which still as- 
cends. On Thursday, for some reason, his standing is 



100 



90 



80 



70 



60 



SO 
Moa 



Tuea. 



Wed. 



Ihur. Fri. 



158 TYPES OF TEACHING 

80, and he must draw his line down instead of up. The 
chances are that the line next day will again ascend, 
as people would usually rather record a good standing 
for themselves than a poor one and will in consequence 
work to make this possible. Self -competition is, there- 
fore, a motive not to be overlooked in the effort to 
secure drill from young people. The teachers in a cer- 
tain city keep the Avers' scale in penmanship posted 
in their rooms, and the pupils take their own work up 
to the scale as it hangs on the wall, and, by compari- 
son, decide where they belong. They do this, at times, 
without direction from the teacher, thus showing their 
interest in their own degree of skill. 

Approval of the teacher or parents, or others whose 
opinion is esteemed, is a motive with many pupils for 
drill in order to become more accurate or more rapid 
in execution, or to produce a more beautiful result. 
We all like approval in some form, and children are 
very susceptible to its influence. A word, a look, the 
posting of a good piece of work for classmates to see 
it, relieving from further practice in the exercise mas- 
tered, granting some jrpecial duty or activity as a mark 
of approval of effort and accomplishment, — these are 
some of the ways in which recognition may be shown 
when a pupil has produced an excellent piece of work 
or has improved upon one that was unsatisfactory. 
The same form of approval will probably not appeal 
equally to all pupils, and consequently the teacher will 
find it wise to note the forms which make the strongest 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 159 

appeal to the pupils who especially need to put forth 
effort in the form of drill. 

Making a good record, either because of pride in the 
record or for the sake of advancement, is a motive 
commonly urged as a motive for practice. Pupils are 
pushed through drill exercises in order that they may 
be prepared for promotion. They cannot " pass " unless 
they achieve a certain degree of excellence, and this they 
must gain through practice. This is by no means the best 
motive to employ, but it sometimes rouses the neces- 
sary energy and effort when other appeals have failed. 

There are still other possibilities in the way of moti- 
vating drill exercises. The sources given do not ex- 
haust the list. A final source, possibly the teacher's 
last resort, is stern necessity. When some pupils re- 
main untouched by the motive which stirs all other 
members of the class, then these must put forth effort 
at improvement just because they must. A certain 
degree of achievement should be attained by all normal 
pupils, and a miniature Achilles cannot be permitted 
to sulk idly in his tent simply because he does not care 
whether he can read, write, spell, work arithmetic 
examples, or perform other labors which society through 
its schools sets for him to do. 

The second step in drill is making clear what is to 
be done. If pupils write figures slowly, they should 
know that a specific drill exercise is intended to in- 
crease their rapidity. If they have difficulty in carry- 
ing in addition, the process should be made clear in 



160 TYPES OF TEACHING 

some way before the drill exercise for facility begins. 
If pupils read in jerky fashion, the desired mode of 
reading should be presented so that the children may 
know how they are to read in the practice exercise. 
If letters are poorly formed or joined, the exact diffi- 
culty must be made clear and correct forms shown, so 
that pupils may practice intelligently. Whatever the 
form of the drill exercise, the pupils should know what 
they are to do. It is not always sufficient for them to see 
what is wrong: they must see, also, what the correct 
form or idea is. They must know the more excellent 
way. It sometimes does more harm than good to show 
the incorrect form and to warn against its use. It is 
more helpful to show the correct usage and to say, 
"Do this." Teachers often say to a pupil, "You did 
not read that well. Read it again"; and the pupil has 
no guide as to how he should improve. Writing in- 
correctly spelled words or ungrammatical expressions 
on the blackboard as forms to be avoided is still a 
common procedure. Faulty illustrations should be 
replaced or at least supplemented by examples of cor- 
rect procedure, in order that the pupils may apply 
energy at the right place. 

The time required to bring to mind a feeling of need 
or of purpose in a drill exercise and of making the 
pupils aware of what is to be done does not usually 
occupy much time. A few minutes frequently suffice 
for the preparatory work, and then the class is ready 
for the drill itself, — the habit-forming process. 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 161 

The laws of habit-formation 

Professor James * gives the first law of habit-for- 
mation thus: "We must take care to launch ourselves 
with as strong and decided an initiative as possible." 
This strong initiative is provided for in the prepara- 
tory work, in which the purpose is seen, the idea of 
what is to be done is clarified, and interest and energy 
are appealed to. 

The second rule given by Professor James is, "Never 
suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely 
rooted in your life" In other words, keep living up con- 
sistently to the thing which is to be made automatic. 
It is the frequent fate of New Year's resolutions to fall 
by the way in a short time because the people who 
make them presently begin to make exceptions and 
soon find themselves back in the old habit. The reason 
why some men who smoke have to swear off so often 
is that they make exceptions to the habit of refraining 
from tobacco before the habit of self-denial is firmly 
enough fixed to make exceptions safe. If one is seek- 
ing to fix the habit of working neatly, accurately, and 
promptly, if he is striving for correct posture, or is 
endeavoring to substitute good habits of speech for 
poor ones, one cannot safely indulge in the old habits 
part of the time. The new forms must be employed 
consistently. Physiologically the breaking-off of an old 
habit and the forming of a new one mean the discon- 
tinuance of one line of connections through the nerve 
1 William James, Talks to Teachers, chap. viii. 



162 TYPES OF TEACHING 

fibers and the formation of another. Relapses from 
the new line of connections mean that the old one is 
again followed and is strengthened by renewed use. 
To yield to an old habit, to say, "I'll do it just this 
once," is often to break down with one act the barrier 
of resistance which has been painfully reared against 
undesirable modes of thought and action. Then the old 
sweep in upon us like a flood resuming its former chan- 
nel. The indulgence is always recorded in the nervous 
system, whether conscience is willing to forgive or not. 
Then, too, there is the frequent consequence of becom- 
ing discouraged, after several lapses, and saying, "It 
is of no use to try again." The safer plan by far is to 
suffer no exceptions. 

The third law is, "Seize the very first possible oppor- 
tunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every 
emotional prompting you may experience in the direc* 
tion of the habits you aspire to gain." This law is known 
as the law of repetition. Its purpose is to give control 
over the new form of activity and so fix it in the nerves 
and muscles of the body that it will presently operate 
of itself without the direction of consciousness. 

If the use of a tool is to be learned, a correct pro- 
nunciation acquired, a good posture made habitual, or 
the habit fixed of thinking letters, words, or figures in 
definite combinations as in spelling, memorizing poetry, 
or thinking of ten when seven and three are added, the 
ideas or acts or whatever is to be thus fixed in mind, 
nerves, and muscles must be repeated in correct order 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 163 

and must be repeated often enough to make it a part 
of one's life. In addition to suffering no exceptions 
when the opportunity offers for using the new mode of 
acting and thinking, this mode must be made auto- 
matic by drill devoted to that purpose. 

One cannot say just how much drill there should be, 
since the amount is determined by several factors. If 
the effort at mastering a new habit, at increasing skill, 
results in pleasure to the individual who is working, 
the amount of drill necessary to master is diminished. 
If a boy knew that he could go fishing or swimming 
or to the moving-picture show as soon as he had learned 
to recite the multiplication table of 9's or to spell a 
list of fifty words correctly, the time devoted to drill 
would probably not need to be very long. Then, too, 
the amount of energy and enthusiasm expended in 
forming the new habit influences the amount of time 
necessary to complete the process. One may dislike 
memorizing, but may go at the task with such vim 
that it is soon accomplished and the number of repe- 
titions necessary greatly diminished. In learning to 
spell the word separate with a instead of e in the sec- 
ond syllable, the learning may be hastened by making 
the a emphatic either by saying it with more force than 
the other letters, by writing it more heavily, by under- 
scoring it, or by some other means expending unusual 
effort on it. 

One of the most costly and least effective modes of 
learning is repetition which lacks special motive and 



164 TYPES OF TEACHING 

interest, and which is performed with little outlay of 
attention or energy. What is made into habit or com- 
mitted to memory in this way is acquired through 
many repetitions. The process is time-consuming; it 
lacks intelligence; and we cannot be sure that the re- 
sults will be used as they should when occasions de- 
mand them. Much of this kind of memorizing per- 
sists in the schools. Spelling, writing, arithmetical 
combinations, as the multiplication tables, conjuga- 
tions, declensions, rules, definitions, gymnastics, and 
other lessons demanding drill are frequently conducted 
as exercises in repetition without definite purpose on 
the pupils' part, without much interest or attention, 
and without calling forth the energy which would cut 
the process short and fix the results more certainly. 

The necessity of attention 

Probably most of us used copy books in our early 
school days. We wrote the first two or three lines on 
each page fairly well, and then the work began to 
deteriorate until the last line was the worst one on the 
page. If repetition alone were an effective agent in 
increasing skill, the last line would have been the best 
in every instance. Another element must be added to 
it to insure gain, and that is attention. One must at- 
tend to what he is doing; he must compare each effort 
with the model, or with his own previous efforts to see 
what gains are yet to be made and by what means they 
can be accomplished. Attention to the motions in- 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 165 

volved in so simple a matter as handling bricks brought 
a saving of effort and an economy of time that years 
of mere repetition never evolved. Repetition, at best, 
fixes a certain mode of doing, and may just as easily 
fix a poor one as a good one. Attention to the process 
of learning shortens the time of making acts automa- 
tic; and it is absolutely necessary to bring about im- 
provement in ways of doing things — to increase skill. 
Practice alone does not make perfect, but practice 
with attention will advance the learner toward that end 
because it keeps him conscious of what he yet has to 
accomplish and makes him alert as to possibilities of 
improvement in his methods of working. The pupil 
who copies figures by looking at one, writing it on his 
paper, looking at the next, writing that one on his 
paper, and so on, can, by attending to what he is doing, 
learn to see several figures with one glance and remem- 
ber them long enough to write them; and the pupil 
who devotes attention to his writing exercise can more 
quickly eliminate his errors and increase the control 
of his movements. 

Attention to an object or process cannot be long 
sustained at a high tension. Experiments have shown 
that it fluctuates even when the people under obser- 
vation were striving to keep it constant. The sugges- 
tion here for the teacher is that he must not expect 
close attention to one form of drill to be maintained 
for a long period. Several short periods of sharp, vigor- 
ous drill, with interest and hearty effort, produce 



166 TYPES OF TEACHING 

better results than one long unbroken period, and 
there is not so much fatigue. 

When a class is seemingly wearied and listless, a 
change in the method of conducting a drill exercise 
arouses fresh interest, taps a new store of energy, and 
brings back the wandering attention. The forehanded 
teacher will have various devices prepared for such les- 
sons and will employ them judiciously. Written drill 
may give way to an oral one; board drill to seat work; 
individual drill to a class drill; and drill on facts or 
processes taken by themselves to facts or processes 
employed in a game or other setting. If the attention 
and interest can be held by one kind of exercise until 
the object of the drill is accomplished, of course it is 
not necessary to vary procedure. Pupils sometimes 
greatly prefer one form of drill to others, and in case 
this preferred form is effective, it may as well be con- 
tinued. It is useless to vary just for the sake of change. 
The point to be kept in view is efficient drill, and when 
change will further this end, its introduction is justi- 
fied. 

The necessity of accuracy 

When incorrect associations are made or wrong 
habits of acting are formed, the labor of learning the 
correct ones later involves the extra difficulty of un- 
learning the faulty or undesirable habits, and of break- 
ing up the associations in the nervous system which are 
the basis of these automatic acts. For some reason, 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 167 

undesirable habits seem easy to acquire and hard to 
get rid of. It is, therefore, most desirable that teachers 
who consciously train pupils in habit-formation should 
take pains to see that the first associations are correct, 
and that the first acts are those which are to be fixed 
by drill. The position for writing, the manner of hold- 
ing the pen, the forms of letters, the forms of figures, 
the order of letters in words, the utterance of sounds 
in phonic drill, the tones used in singing and reading, 
reading connectedly instead of in a choppy, word-at-a- 
time fashion, the pronunciation of new words, the num- 
ber combinations, and the many other details which 
should become automatic, are all matters which should 
be started in the right way. To say, "Never mind for 
the present. That matter will take care of itself by and 
by"; or, "When the pupils are old enough to know 
better, they will do differently," is to disregard the 
force of habits when once they are formed, and the 
probability of their continuing as they are begun. 
It is safer far to begin with the correct habit and thus 
make sure of it. 

Sometimes accuracy is hindered by undertaking to 
cover too much ground in one drill exercise. The man 
who said the best way to catch a flock of geese was to 
chase down and catch one goose at a time, disregarding 
the rest, gave good advice. Too many details at once 
distract attention, dissipate energy, and defeat the 
very purpose of special drill. This suggestion applies 
both to presenting new matter for the habit-forming 



168 TYPES OF TEACHING 

exercise, such as giving new words to be pronounced 
or spelled, and to the eliminating of errors or associa- 
tions already formed, as in correcting compositions. 
It is better to overcome one or two at a time than to 
try to include all in one exercise. 

Necessity of increasing facility and rapidity 

When the correct habits have once been started, it 
is often necessary to consider how they may be made 
to operate quickly. It is not enough to add correctly 
in everyday life: one must be able to add quickly as 
well. A woman who wrote a Spencerian hand almost 
perfectly was so slow about it that she was able to 
write comparatively little. Other people, whose writ- 
ing was not so elegant but who wrote more rapidly 
and easily, were much more helpful than she. Much 
time is wasted because we do not drill for rapidity 
as we might in the various lines of automatic respon- 
ses. Pupils rise slowly; pass materials slowly; spell, 
write, and work arithmetic slowly. They spend far 
more tim^ studying than they should. They ought to 
be made conscious of the value of the time element 
and made to shorten the time as much as they can and 
still keep the product up to a high standard. It ought 
to be a matter of pride to spend a short time over a 
lesson, providing the lesson is well prepared. Compe- 
tition with one's own record or with other pupils should 
be encouraged. The time record should be kept for 
the ^lass or for individuals until the habit of prompt 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 169 

action is assured. If the teacher watches the various 
school exercises, he will discover the places where 
there is a leakage of time and can then stop the waste 
by special exercises. It is worth while for the sake of 
the school work and for the sake of the effect upon 
the pupils' way of working. 

Discontinuing drill 

There will come a time when drill may be discontin- 
ued, but experience shows that it should be diminished 
by degrees and not stop suddenly. A matter is not 
fixed once for all, as we know to our sorrow. Drills on 
the same matter must be given from time to time with 
intervals of increasing length between the exercises. 
Professor Thorndike l says : — 

For any one habit in any one person there is some one best 
distribution of time over the series. For one habit or set of 
habits it may be best to give ten drills of twenty minutes for 
the first week, ten drills of ten minutes the second week, ten 
drills of five minutes the third week, five drills of eight 
minutes the fourth week, and one drill of ten minutes each 
week for three weeks, and then one drill of ten minutes a 
month for four months. Or it may be best to distribute the 
460 minutes in a very different way. 

The drill should be continued, from time to time, 
until the desired association or habit is fixed. To stop 
short of that point is practically to lose the time and 
effort expended up to the point of discontinuance. 

1 E. L. Thorndike, Education, chap. ix. 



170 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Memorizing a habit-forming exercise 

Reference has already been made in this chapter to 
memorizing as a form of habit-making. It consists in 
learning things in the order in which they are meant 
to recur always thereafter. In much of the committing 
to memory, the elements are joined in an arbitrary 
manner, as, for example, the letters in a word, the let- 
ters in the alphabet, or the numbers in counting. They 
simply have to be memorized as they are through any 
of the means at the teacher's command to make the 
process short and sure. 

Memorizing poetry, rules, or other matter possessing 
content, is quite a different matter. Here the symbols 
to be learned in a definite order represent connected 
thought. Committing to memory such material should 
follow the understanding of the thought, though this 
order of procedure is often neglected. There are two 
reasons why thought should be studied. In the first 
place, the poem or other selection to be memorized 
is chosen because of the value of its meaning. In the 
second place, when the meaning is clear, the process of 
memorizing is hastened. 

Nearly two hundred teachers were asked recently 
to tell in writing how they would memorize a chapter 
in the Bible or a poem. In describing the process of 
memorizing the poem, a large number said they would 
learn the first line, then the second, then the first and 
second, then the third, then the first, second, and third, 
and so on. This mode of teaching poems to children 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 171 

can be seen almost daily in some of our schools. The 
meaning of the whole, the natural stopping-places, 
such as the ends of thoughts, or thought-units, are 
quite disregarded. If teachers will go through the 
poem as a whole with their pupils, talking it over, get- 
ting its meaning, enjoying it, and will then take the 
lines that express a whole thought as a unit to be 
learned, instead of one line, they will secure better re- 
sults.. Thus the poem, "Daisies," so often taught to 
children, offers a stopping-place at the end of every 
two lines, as can be seen by inspection. It is often 
taught one line at a time : — 

DAISIES l 

At evening when I go to bed, 
I see the stars shine overhead; 
They are the little daisies white 
That dot the meadow of the night. 

And often while I 'm dreaming so, 
Across the sky the moon will go; 
It is a lady, sweet and fair, 
Who comes to gather daisies there. 

For when at morning I arise, 

There's not a star left in the skies; 

She's picked them all and dropped them down 

Into the meadows of the town. 

Frank Dempster Sherman. 

In this poem each pair of lines answers a question, 
so regular is the arrangement. In the drill exercise 
if the teacher asks the question when the pupil recit- 

1 From Little-Folk Lyrics, published by Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. 



172 TYPES OF TEACHING 

ing hesitates, the lines which answer will usually come 
to mind. Some of these questions are: What does the 
child see when he goes to bed? What does he think 
they are? What happens while he is dreaming? What 
does he say the moon is? What makes him think so? 
In other selections the length of the thought-units — 
that is, the parts which are complete in themselves or 
so nearly so that they afford convenient breaks in 
memorizing — may vary. The procedure should be : 
first, to study the whole; second, to memorize by 
thought-units; third, to repeat the poem or selection 
until it is thoroughly committed, making the thought 
a basis for the associations as far as possible. 

Learning facts which belong in a series 

Many of the facts to be memorized are arranged 
in series, and others can be so arranged in order to 
facilitate memorizing. The alphabet, the multiplica- 
tion tables, conjugations, declensions, lists of prefixes 
and suffixes, such rules as the one in Latin for the verb 
compounds which govern the dative case, all offer a 
definite arrangement to be learned. In memorizing, 
all the numbers of the series should be learned, and 
in the order in which they regularly occur. This does 
not mean that a pupil will memorize the alphabet when 
he first enters school. When the time comes that re- 
quires its mastery, it should then be learned from a to 
s in order. The same holds true of the multiplication 
tables. Eventually the facts of the various tables 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 173 

should be learned in order, though the table of 10's 
may be memorized before the table of 7's. The teacher 
should be sure that all the members of the series are 
included, and that they are memorized in the correct 
order. 

The step of application as habit-formation 

The last of the five formal steps is the step of appli- 
cation. Its purpose is to make the learner proficient in 
the use of the new knowledge he has acquired through 
the preceding steps. If he has just learned what a 
noun is, he is to identify nouns in this last step until 
he knows them with a minimum of thought. If he has 
learned how a fraction is divided by an integer, he is 
to work problems involving this process until he has 
mastered it, and the work almost performs itself. He 
either acquires proficiency in some process, or skill in 
the application of some principle or other form of gen- 
eral knowledge. In either case, drill exercises are neces- 
sary to insure mastery. The suggestions given as to 
amount and variety of drill in other connections apply 
to drill in the step of application. It is because this fac- 
tor in fixing knowledge and processes and in increasing 
skill has been neglected that so many pupils develop 
presently into a state of intellectual muddle, and in- 
efficiency. Facts and processes, not being fixed, fade 
out or become confused, until after a time, the pupils 
possess what some one has aptly described as "mere 
tails and fins" of knowledge. 



174 TYPES OF TEACHING 

Teaching pupils to direct the formation of their own 
habits 

The formation of habits in young pupils should be 
directed closely in all its steps by the teacher; but 
finally the responsibility can be shifted by degrees to 
the shoulders of the pupils themselves, and they can 
be made aware of the steps which should be followed. 
At first the teacher brings the motive to consciousness, 
makes clear the facts or processes to be learned, and 
then supervises or directs the practice by the pupils. 
When the pupils are far enough advanced, part of the 
drill may be turned over to them to perform as a task 
outside of the class period, the teacher inspecting re- 
sults from time to time. The time should come when 
the pupils, once seeing what is to be done, can take 
charge of all the drill necessary to perfect themselves. 
When they know how to use the dictionary, the teacher 
need no longer give the correct form when a word is 
misspelled, but can direct attention to it. The pupil 
must then find the correct form for himself and per- 
form the practice required to fix the proper spelling. 
This applies to the use of case forms of personal pro- 
nouns, the agreement of verbs with their subjects, and 
other facts which the children have it within their 
power to discover. When they are able to find these 
things for themselves, the responsibility for discovering 
the correct form should be put upon them. 

Can pupils ever learn to doubt their own habits or 
usages? If this is possible, then the whole process of 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 175 

drill can be turned over to them. Do children ever 
question the spelling of a word they have written, the 
process they have employed in solving a problem, the 
grammatical accuracy of their own speech? Do they 
ever question their own ways of working and wonder if 
there are other and better ways? To some extent they 
do, and possibly they can be trained to do so to a 
greater degree. They can then be made conscious of 
the entire habit-forming process and can be both en- 
couraged and required to employ it. They should 
understand that they must see clearly what is to be 
done; that they must give themselves practice in the 
operation, putting energy into the process and watch- 
ing their own work to keep out error and to bring in- 
crease of proficiency; and that they must from time 
to time repeat the drill to insure the retention of the 
newly acquired knowledge or skill. Probably few 
teachers have ever attempted this advanced training, 
but that does not necessarily prove that it is either 
undesirable or impossible. 

Summary. (1) Since many processes and much of the 
knowledge learned must be reduced to the form of habit, and 
since the acquisition of skill is necessary, drill exercises with 
these ends in view are indispensable. The drill is essentially 
a habit-forming exercise. (2) Any subject which requires the 
learning of facts in definite form, the mastery of processes, 
or the acquisition of skill, involves drill. (3) (a) Motivation 
is necessary in drill not only to direct effort but to secure 
interest and attention. There are many sources of motives 
or reasons. (6) Definite understanding of what is to be done 



176 TYPES OF TEACHING 

is the second step, (c) The third one is repetition with atten- 
tion. No exceptions should be permitted until the new habit 
is established. (4) Attention is necessary in drill to avoid 
error, to shorten the time, and to increase skill. As attention 
weakens, it may be renewed by varying the exercise. The 
period should not be prolonged to the point of over fatigue. 
(5) Accuracy in the beginning of a habit is essential as first 
impressions and associations are apt to be lasting. (6) When 
accuracy is established, facility and rapidity should be 
sought. (7) Drill should be discontinued gradually and 
should not be dropped finally until proficiency has been 
attained. (8) Memorizing is fundamentally the formation of 
habit. It should be based upon understanding of the thought 
when possible. (9) In learning facts in a series, the series 
should be complete and the exact order should be followed. 
(10) The step of application involves drill to fix knowledge 
and increase skill in processes learned in the other formal 
steps. (11) Pupils, as they develop in intelligence and abil- 
ity, should be trained in the process of drill until they can 
assume much of the responsibility for it. 

References: E. L. Thorndike, Education, chap, in, also chaps, 
vi and ix ; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, ed. of 1912, chap, 
xxin; W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, chap, xxn; S. H. Rowe, 
Habit-Formation and the Science of Teaching, chap, xin; G. D. 
Strayer, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. iv. 

EXERCISES 

1. In a certain arithmetic, arranged on the so-called spiral plan, 
the same type of problem occurs on every tenth page, so that, in 
order to work ten examples in finding interest, the pupils must 
work through a hundred pages of the textbook. From the point 
of view of habit-formation, what serious defect exists in such a 
book? 

2. Why should useful processes be made automatic? 

3. Advance at least two arguments for the increase of skill on the 
part of a workman or artist. 

4. Think over the way you work when you settle yourself to study 



THE FORMATION OF HABITS 177 

a lesson. Could any of your studying habits be improved? Sug- 
gest how the old habits can be broken up and the better ones 
formed. 

5. Sometimes the multiplication tables are mastered by sheer 
weight of repetition. Show how the instinct of play can be called 
upon so as to shorten the process? 

6. Show how the spirit of competition may be used to bring about 
the formation of certain desirable habits. 

7. We are told that we should examine subject-matter to discover 
the serial order of the facts which are to be memorized. Name 
such a series of facts from each of three subjects. 

8. What habits must be formed in penmanship? In geography? 
In sclent reading? In oral composition? In algebra? In physics? 

9. The satisfaction which results from having performed a certain 
process correctly diminishes the number of repetitions necessary 
to make the process a habit. How can a teacher cause his pupils 
to experience satisfaction and so save time and energy in habit- 
formation? 

10. What is the probable basis for the complaint made by teachers 
each autumn that their pupils must have been poorly taught 
because they do not know anything? 

11. Pupils know that they must learn the multiplication tables, that 
they must learn to write and to spell. Why employ any other 
motive than this in making these processes mechanical? 

12. How much drill should one employ in fixing a habit? 

13. Young teachers sometimes continue drill until a process is per- 
fect at the time. In a few weeks they are amazed to discover 
that the pupils have forgotten or have lost skill. What is the 
cause of such a condition? 

14. Write a list of helpful suggestions for memorizing The Children's 
Hour. 

15. Suggest two or three habits pupils should be taught to employ in 
connection with the meaning or spelling of unfamiliar words. 

16. Give examples from experience or observation to show that 
repetition without attention did not increase skill or form the 
desired habit. 



XIII 

SCHOOL EXERCISES WHICH INVOLVE REVIEW 

What is meant by review 

The review exercise is assuming new meaning and 
importance in the school procedure of the present day. 
It is not many years since a review lesson was an exer- 
cise in which pupils passed a second time over subject- 
matter previously studied. Sometimes they re-read 
it; sometimes they answered questions at the end of 
the chapter, the answers being taken bodily from the 
text. The purpose of such exercises was to fix facts 
so firmly in mind that they would be remembered by 
the learner. We have come to regard these lessons as 
drills, since their function is to make certain associa- 
tions habitual. The conception of the nature of a re- 
view lesson differs widely from this view once preva- 
lent. 

When ideas or ways of acting are recalled to the mind 
for the purpose of establishing new meanings, new re- 
lationships, or new ways of acting, we may be said to 
be reviewing our ideas or our modes of activity. Where- 
as in drill we seek to make automatic the connections 
already established between ideas, and the forms of 
conduct and ways of doing things which are already 
started, in review, we are looking toward the estab- 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 179 

lishment of new relations, the influencing of old activ- 
ities or the beginning of new ones. 

We establish new relations when we gather a mass 
of ideas about a subject into different groups, basing 
our grouping upon the meaning of the ideas or the use 
they serve. Thus we may review all the facts gained 
about New York City by seeking to form a classifi- 
cation, and may place in one group all ideas relating 
to occupations of the people; and into another group, 
all ideas relating to parks and museums; and so on 
until we have completed the classification. We also 
establish new relations when we gain new knowledge 
by means of knowledge already possessed. For ex- 
ample, upon the basis of our knowledge about angles, 
we build a store of ideas about triangles when we study 
geometry. To solve a given problem about triangles, 
we must review our knowledge of angles and select 
the relevant facts which apply to our particular prob- 
lem. 

People frequently employ a poor way of doing 
things because they have not made a connection be- 
tween the form of activity in question and the knowl- 
edge they possess which might help them. In domestic 
science, pupils are sometimes taught how to wash 
dishes in a better way by reviewing the knowledge 
which gives the clue to the proper procedure. "What 
effect does heat have upon the yolk of eggs? " " Should 
one, then, use very hot water when washing dishes 
which have yolk of egg on them? " "What effect does 



180 TYPES OF TEACHING 

cold water have upon grease?" "How about using 
cold or tepid water to get rid of grease?" "How hot 
should the water be when greasy dishes are washed?" 
In such lessons, established habits are altered through 
the review and application of previous knowledge. 
We sometimes insure the formation of right habits by 
getting the appropriate knowledge into mind in time 
to influence the first performance of the act which is 
to be fixed, as when, in physical training, the ideas in 
regard to the performing of certain movements are re- 
called and used as the basis for the development of 
new exercises. 

When reviews are helpful and necessary 

There is a fundamental activity of the mind in- 
volved in all review which we need to examine in order 
to determine when reviews are necessary. This is the 
process of correlation, the process of giving meaning 
to ideas through relating them to other ideas which 
have more or less meaning established. Thus some- 
thing growing in a field is recognized as wheat because 
it is related to an established idea. Curiously enough, 
the "set" of the mind influences the associations made 
among ideas. A certain sound may be interpreted 
by one person as the unloading of coal, while another 
may interpret it as the grinding of stone for paving. 
The same sound may be given these two meanings by 
the same person at different times. On a winter morn- 
ing he might think "unloading coal." If the street 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 181 

were being repaired, he might think "stone-crusher 
at work." 

The point in what has been said is that we always 
make progress, gain meanings, and enrich experience 
upon the basis of the experience already possessed. 
There is very little time in our waking hours when we 
are not attaching meaning to ideas, hence correlation 
is a pretty constant process. Since education is a con- 
scious attempt to reorganize experience, to build up 
knowledge, to influence intelligent activities and 
modes of looking at things, there must be conscious 
recourse to this process of correlation. That is, there 
must be effort directed towards influencing the asso- 
ciations made among ideas, so that knowledge may 
result and so that activities based upon knowledge 
may be assured. 

In answer to the question, "When are reviews help- 
ful and necessary?" the statement must be that re- 
views are necessary and helpful when the ideas which 
are to be the basis for understanding would not of 
themselves come into the minds of the pupils, or when 
these ideas might not come in such form as to make 
understanding ready and complete. Ideas might be 
recalled in part only, or they might present themselves 
in such disorganized array that they need to be put 
in order and freed from error. Review is necessary 
to insure the presence of the correct basis for the proc- 
ess of correlation. In any form of school exercise which 
involves interpretation of ideas, whether it be a proc- 



/ 



182 TYPES OF TEACHING 

ess of thinking out the answer to a problem, or the 
application of ideas to some form of activity, review 
may be required. If we examine these exercises, some 
of the most striking occasions for the use of review will 
appear. 

Suggestions for conducting review exercises 

a. Review of old knowledge to form basis for solution 
of new problem. Instead of a review taking place at 
the end of a lesson exclusively, as is sometimes the 
practice, a lesson should frequently begin with a re- 
view. In the step of preparation, and often in the les- 
son assignment, the ideas related to the new thought 
to be gained and necessary to its understanding should 
be reviewed. 

It has long been the practice of those who follow 
the Herbartian pedagogy to begin a teaching exercise 
by stating the aim of the lesson to the pupils. With 
this aim as a clue, the previous knowledge related to 
it is recalled, and, if need be made clear, and organ- 
ized. 1 The necessity of having an aim is freely ad- 
mitted, as is also the need of reviewing relevant ex- 
perience; but the idea of having the teacher state the 
aim is not now generally accepted. The pupils can 
be made to feel a need for more knowledge or for a 
new form of skill by being made conscious of a lack 
in their own previous experience, and this shortage 

1 C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the Recitation, chaps. 

VI, XI. 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 183 

can be made apparent through a review. A feeling of 
need can be aroused for something which the review 
shows to be lacking. In a geography lesson recently 
witnessed, the pupils in summing up into organized 
form what they had learned in a previous lesson in 
answer to the question, "Why is San Francisco so 
important a city?" found that they knew that com- 
merce is one element of importance, also that they 
knew many ports from which ships bring cargoes to 
San Francisco. They did not know, however, very 
fully or very accurately the nature of the cargoes. 
This deficiency of knowledge betrayed by the review, 
furnished the motive for a succeeding study period, 
namely, "What do the ships from Hawaii, the Philip- 
pines, and other countries, bring to San Francisco?" 

With this aim established as a motive for a lesson, 
review might continue in order to bring to mind what 
the pupils know about the lands which trade with 
San Francisco that would enable them to work out 
at least part of the answer. Another review would 
also be valuable to call to mind the sources from which 
information bearing on the question could be ob- 
tained; also, the way to obtain the facts quickly from 
the sources named, that is, how to find quickly the 
chapter or map needed in the books named. 

b. Review tcTttiscover whether all of the material con- 
cerned with a problem has been included and mastered. 
It has been shown that reviews are helpful in develop- 
ing the aim of a lesson, in preparing the minds of the 



184 TYPES OF TEACHING 

pupils for the solution, and in making prompt, accur- 
ate, and independent work possible. Reviews cannot 
be excluded from that part of the lesson in which 
knowledge is extended or new activities are learned; 
that is, from the presentation. One might liken the 
mind to a shuttle, weaving back and forth among ideas 
and making a fabric of them. To be thus related, it 
is necessary again and again to call up desired ideas. 
Experience is being reorganized and the parts to be 
affected must be brought to the mind's focus in order 
that they may themselves be altered, or that they 
may give meaning to other parts of experience. Re- 
view cannot be limited to the preparation or assign- 
ment. It is not accomplished once for all or in its 
entirety there. It often does not include all that is 
needed, and frequently it must be repeated during the 
course of the advance lesson. 

A class began to work upon the problem, "Would 
the pupils of Old England who settled in New Eng- 
land feel at home in New England?" In preparation 
for the new lesson, various phases of New England 
were considered as that part of the subject had been 
studied. Little was known about England, but what 
was known was recalled and grouped under topics. 
In the advance lesson, information about England was 
sought for and as facts were gained they were grouped 
under appropriate headings. Point by point Old Eng- 
land was compared with New England to discover 
whether there were similarities which would make the 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 185 

settlers feel at home. Review in such an exercise meets 
one at every turn. "Certain conditions of soil and 
climate are found in England. What industries may 
one expect as the result of these conditions?" As sim- 
ple and frequent a question as this cannot be answered 
without a backward mental look to find the foundation 
experience upon which to base the answer. We must, 
then, employ review frequently and wisely to insure 
a thorough presentation and understanding of the 
new lesson. 

c. Review in application and drill. The old proverb, 
"Practice makes perfect," has of late years given way 
to the psychological maxim, "Repetition with atten- 
tion makes perfect." Repetition corresponds very 
well with practice, but to what shall one be attentive? 
To a model or ideal of some kind and also to the 
work being done. We are dealing here with the founda- 
tion of habits or the increase of skill. The first step 
in such exercises is a clear idea of the thing to be done. 
This may be secured through presentation or through 
the recall of previous ideas. As the practice is to be 
accompanied by attention, by frequent comparison 
of the thing as it is with the model to be equaled, there 
is again a constant review of the model or ideal. This 
review not only influences skill, but it serves to fix the 
ideas recalled and related very firmly in mind. This 
statement would hold true of the ideas reviewed in 
any step of a lesson. The part of a lesson in which 
associations among ideas are made automatic, and 



186 TYPES OF TEACHING 

in which activities are reduced to the stage of habit, 
is known as the application. Through it we seek con- 
trol of associations and activities. As has been shown, 
it must be based upon the right idea and must fre- 
quently refer to this idea if results are to be satisfac- 
tory. Thus the child who tries to master long division 
must review again and again what he is to do as he 
works from one example to another. The student in 
manual training who is working from a drawing must 
at times refresh his idea of what is to be done by re- 
viewing his plan. The art student or music student 
reviews constantly the instructions of the master 
when working for skill. 

Training pupils into right ideas and conscious 
method of review 

Review must be accepted, not only as an important, 
but also as an indispensable element in the various 
stages of teaching and of study as here set forth. It 
is essential in order that the student may organize his 
subject, and get a clear view of it in its proper order. 
In studying a book, it is often advisable to read a chap- 
ter through without stopping, in order to get the gen- 
eral line of thought. More detailed study may follow 
in order to discover the main points and the author's 
arguments for these points. As a test for himself, the 
student may lay the book aside, write the proper head- 
ing, and then outline the subject for himself, basing his 
organization upon his own view of the subject. This 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 187 

independent work is often a most valuable review of 
the author's work because it involves both agreement 
and difference, and that usually means a good under- 
standing of the text. Material presented through a 
series of lessons in class should be similarly reviewed 
and organized to secure intelligent comprehension, and 
also to aid retention in the mind. 

Pupils in the grammar grades, or high schools, as 
well as students in higher institutions, should, in 
order to get a thorough grasp of a given subject, bring 
it up to date, so to speak, by stating from time to time 
the main topics or subjects which have been covered 
in textbook study or class work. The whole plan of 
the work becomes clear, the relation of part to part 
is seen, relative values are established, and lines of 
independent thought and investigation suggest them- 
selves. Such work throughout a term is much more 
valuable than a season of cramming at the end. It 
results not only in knowledge, but also in power to 
work independently and effectively. 

General suggestions 

a. The teacher's 'preparation for a review exercise. 
The teacher's preparation for a review exercise should 
be as carefully made as the preparation for any other 
exercise. The preparation itself must be a review on 
the teacher's part in order to determine what experi- 
ence the pupils have had that will be helpful in the 
approaching lesson. The point of contact between the 



188 TYPES OF TEACHING 

old and the new must be determined; and, since corre- 
lation depends partly upon the set or state of mind at 
the time the ideas to be considered enter consciousness, 
the proper background should be included in the 
teacher's planning. The success of any review exer- 
cise which is an important part of a lesson or series of 
lessons will depend largely upon the thoughtful prep- 
aration of the teacher and upon her foresight in creat- 
ing the right attitude and spirit for it. It will be 
affected, too, by the spirit which the teacher brings 
to meet the class. With a teacher so steeped in for- 
mality as to belong to the type described by Carlyle 
as " dry-as-dust," a review is quite sure to be a per- 
functory affair. Under the direction of a teacher who 
sees in it a means of mastery, of organization, and of 
furnishing the starting-point for new investigation, 
and who realizes the value of interest, a review may 
be a very profitable exercise, which, while it may be 
difficult, may at the same time seem worth the effort 
to those who engage in it. 

b. The time given to review. Attention is called to the 
fact that reviews are often a part of other exercises, 
but that they sometimes form separate lessons. They 
may require only a few minutes of time, or they may 
occupy one or more recitation periods, — the latter 
only in the case of older students who need to review 
in order to organize their facts in regard to a large 
section of subject-matter. The time spent will depend 
upon the nearness of the material to consciousness, 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 189 

upon the amount of it, and also upon the amount and 
kind of organization which already exists. The mate- 
rial needed for a new lesson may have been so recently 
in mind and may be so interesting that a single sen- 
tence of suggestion may bring it to consciousness. The 
exact time needed cannot be definitely stated. 

c. Profiting from reviews as tests . In the attempt to 
discover how effective the teaching has been, teachers 
and supervisors sometimes give tests or examinations 
to classes which compel the application of knowledge 
gained or habits formed. These tests thus constitute 
a sort of review. Frequently the percentages obtained 
by the pupils are averaged and a class standing is an- 
nounced. If the average is seventy per cent, or above, 
the teacher is satisfied. Upon the class standing, what- 
ever it may be, the supervisor rates the teacher's abil- 
ity to instruct her class. Meanwhile, what about the 
gaps in knowledge revealed by the test? Suppose the 
class has been working with United States money, 
using the four fundamental operations. A test made 
up of four examples, one for each fundamental opera- 
tion may be given. After the papers are corrected, 
whether the class average be discovered or not, a 
teacher should look over the papers to see how many 
and which pupils failed in the example in addition, 
how many in subtraction, and so on. In case the fail- 
ure is due to some difficulty peculiar to reckoning with 
United States money, it should be discovered. The 
teacher will then know what no class standing can pos- 



190 TYPES OF TEACHING 

sibly tell. He knows which pupils need aid, and also 
what aid they need. This knowledge justifies the test, 
and from it both teacher and class should profit in the 
teaching which follows. Similar reviews conducted 
in other subjects serve to improve the teaching be- 
cause they reveal where expected results have not 
materialized, and where, in consequence, effort must 
be directed. 

Summary. (1) The purpose of reviews is to establish new 
relationships among ideas by means of a basis in knowledge 
already possessed. Drill differs from review in that it seeks 
to fix relations already established. (2) Reviews are helpful 
in order to provide the proper mental attitude for apperceiv- 
ing new ideas, in order to influence the association of ideas, 
and to determine activities based upon ideas. They are 
necessary when the ideas might not come into consciousness 
of themselves when needed, or when they lack organization 
and vividness. (3) They may form an element in any part of 
a lesson from preparation to application. They cannot be 
limited to any one part of a lesson, and are not completed 
once for all. They must be given as needed, whether to 
provide the problem or to organize the data bearing upon 
the problem. (4) Pupils should be trained to use reviews as 
helps in mastering subject-matter. To test mastery, they 
should reorganize material from a new viewpoint. To keep 
track of a series of lessons, or of the material given in one 
lesson, they should review the points from time to time and 
establish relationships. (5) The teacher should exercise 
foresight in regard to reviews, so as to create the right 
attitude for the lessons based upon them, and to insure 
their employment. They may otherwise be overlooked. 
Reviews may form a separate lesson, or may be a part of 
another exercise. They form excellent proofs of the kind of 



SCHOOL EXERCISES INVOLVING REVIEWS 191 

teaching which has been done. They often reveal the weak- 
nesses and the ignorance which the teacher must overcome 
in later teaching. 

References: W. C. Bagley, The Educative Process, chap. xxn. 
G. D. Stray er, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. ix. 

EXERCISES 

1. Give two illustrations to show the difference between drill and 
review. 

2. Explain how a review exercise may be a valuable examination 
lesson. 

3. Show how in the history of the Civil War the organization of the 
subject-matter necessitates review. 

4. In a geography exercise show how an aim or motive for a new 
lesson may be developed through a review of known material. 

5. What, if any, review is necessary in answering the question, 
"Why does the United States not grant self-government to the 
people of the Philippine Islands?" 

6. What connection exists between the process of correlation and 
review? 

7. State all the reasons you can think of for reviews. Did you do 
any mental reviewing in finding these reasons? 

8. When should reviews take place? 

9. Is motivation necessary in reviews? Why, or why not? 
10. How can pupils be trained to conduct their own reviews? 



XIV 

TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 



The nature of study 

For many years, a common complaint urged by 
teachers was that their pupils did not study as they 
should. An investigation of the teachers' ideas as to 
how pupils should study revealed so much ignorance 
and difference of opinion on their part in regard to 
this very important matter that the criticism came to 
include teachers as well as pupils. Teachers in college 
classes must themselves be taught to study in some 
other way than memorizing more or less thoroughly 
the contents of a textbook and reciting them in answer 
to the questions asked by the instructor. In opening 
the discussion of the study lesson, it will be well, there- 
fore, to review the steps which observation and reflec- 
tion show to be necessary in study. 

In a lesson in which habits are to be formed and 
associations so fixed as to function automatically, the 
steps necessary, as explained in the chapter on habit- 
formation, are: (1) a feeling of need which can be satis- 
fied only by learning the habit in view; (2) a clear 
idea on the part of the learner of what is to be done; 
(3) practice. If in dividing by a decimal, pupils are 
to multiply both dividend and divisor by ten, one 






TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 193 

hundred, or some other number obtained by using 
tens as factors, in order to eliminate the decimal in 
the divisor, the idea of the process must be made clear 
to them; there must be attentive repetition of the 
process to insure mastery of the idea and to start the 
process correctly; the process must be employed until 
facility is assured. 

In much studying, however, the work to be done is 
of a very different nature. In the various forms of 
teaching exercises described in this book, we have 
found the starting-point to be the realization of some 
need to be satisfied, some problem to be solved. This 
consciousness of an end to be reached is the starting- 
point of purposive, or logical, thinking. Since study 
in its higher form involves thinking, its beginning, 
also, must lie in the feeling of need, in seeing that some 
end not now present must be reached. In other words, 
study originates in the consciousness of a motive and 
this we call the first step in the process. In a city where 
the milk supply is found to be unsatisfactory, a dis- 
cussion of that fact with its results might lead to the 
question, "What measures can be taken to insure san- 
itary milk?" Here is a problem as definite as finding 
the area of a triangle of given base and altitude, or 
reckoning the interest on ten thousand dollars for four 
years at five and one half per cent, or finding why the 
days and nights are so long in the polar regions. 

With the mind directed thus definitely toward an 
end, other steps in the process of studying follow quite 



194 TYPES OF TEACHING 

naturally. One begins to guess or theorize as to what 
the explanation may be. In other words, he makes an 
hypothesis. He collects information bearing on his 
problem. He may draw from his own experience, he 
may think out the answer, he may consult other peo- 
ple, he may read books, he may observe, or he may ex- 
periment. In the problems suggested in the last para- 
graph he may employ all of these sources in collecting 
the data needed to arrive at a satisfactory result. 
Many times, the thought material collected must be 
grouped into classes in order to bring out its full sig- 
nificance and to enable the learner to master his work 
in orderly fashion. Under the topic of sanitary milk 
supply there would be several large headings with 
various subheadings; e.g., milk-production, transpor- 
tation of milk, distribution of milk, care of milk in the 
home, etc. 

Frequently, too, in study it is necessary to examine 
data, whether in the form of book material or oral 
statements, with great care to see whether they are 
accurate and whether one may safely accept them. A 
certain well-known writer on physiology and hygiene 
purposely makes startling statements contrary to fact 
with the express idea of rousing people to thoughtful 
antagonism. Unless we are accustomed to exercising 
careful scrutiny of the facts bearing on our aim, we are 
likely to believe much that is, to say the least, mis- 
leading. 

Another element in the right kind of study is the 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 195 

practice of not stating a final conclusion when the 
facts do not warrant one. Our best scientists frankly 
say, in regard to many of the problems with which 
they are struggling, " We do not as yet possess enough 
knowledge to enable us to state a positive conclusion"; 
or, "As far as we have been able to discover, the indi- 
cations are that so and so is the case, but no one 
knows definitely.' ' They are studying scientifically 
and they refuse to commit themselves to final conclu- 
sions until the evidence is beyond all question. This 
deferring of judgment is indispensable in accurate 
study. 

But unverified and unapplied theories and solu- 
tions to problems are not final. They must be put to 
the test of use in either real or imagined situations to 
determine their adequacy to meet the difficulty or the 
need which started the studying process. At times, 
the experience of others in whom we have confidence 
is sought to learn whether their conclusions corrobor- 
ate our own. For example, the student who has 
worked out an independent solution of a problem in 
higher mathematics consults the answer in the book, 
or else his instructor, to learn if he is right; or, having 
fixed upon a value for x, he tests it by substituting it 
to see if it satisfies the equation. 

Frequently the results of study must be kept in 
permanent form, and the student is obliged to memo- 
rize what he has learned. This kind of memorizing 
differs from the type employed in learning to count, to 



196 TYPES OF TEACHING 

say the letters of the alphabet, or to spell, in that it is 
based upon thought and is not mere mechanical 
association. 

These factors of study — realizing a problem, for- 
mulating an hypothesis, collecting and organizing 
data, exercising doubt or maintaining independence in 
opinion, deferring conclusion, verifying and applying 
conclusions, and memorizing — may all be present in 
the attempt to meet some of the situations which de- 
mand study; at other times, such elements as the exer- 
cise of doubt, the deferring of judgment, and memori- 
zing may not be necessary. Sometimes the whole 
process may require only a few minutes ; in other prob- 
lems, the studying may extend over a long period 
because the collecting of data may require prolonged 
inquiry, reading, observation, or experimentation. 
This, then, is the nature of study. The questions re- 
main, What shall be done during a study lesson? and 
How may students be trained for independent study? 

What may be done during a study period 

During a study period a student may be occupied 
with one or more steps of the study process. He may 
enter upon the period with a clearly developed aim, or 
it may be a part of his work to discover the problem 
involved in the subject, whether it be found in a book 
or outside of a book. In a book lesson, he may be re- 
quired to find the author's problems or to discover 
supplementary problems of his own. In some subject 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 197 

in manual arts or domestic science, the student may 
prepare a list of the questions involved. Furthermore, 
the study period may include any or all of the other 
processes, whether collecting and organizing data, 
verifying and applying conclusions, or memorizing. 
At some time or other, all of these processes will be 
employed as needs require. 

A problem solved by a pupil is not always a problem 
in condition to be presented to the class. A pupil 
must, then, at times prepare the results of his labors so 
as to give them to his classmates and his teacher. He 
must have his material in order, his proofs ready, must 
think what he is going to say, and what illustrations he 
will use. He may even need to rehearse his lesson so as 
to present it well. 

In his study a student may use books or other 
sources in his search for data. He may observe the 
phenomena about him; he may spend his time in 
thinking; he may be obliged to experiment; or he may 
need to consult other people. His procedure will vary 
with the requirements of his problem. 

The nature of the problem may necessitate study 
outside of school hours, since some of the data must be 
studied elsewhere than in school. Some lessons must 
be prepared in school, since the books to be used are 
found there and not elsewhere, or because the work 
must be done with the teacher. 

Some people in these days are raising a protest 
against home study. If study is a process of solving 



198 TYPES OF TEACHING 

problems, and if the schools select the problems which 
are a part of the lives of the students, then home study 
is inevitable since home and community furnish both 
problems and the data necessary for their solution. 
Schools should be in very close touch with community 
life. The right kind of study will further this relation- 
ship since it brings students into interested, intelligent, 
and cooperative contact with home and neighborhood. 

The study devoted to the solution of problems may 
be either solitary or group activity. In experimental 
work, in the preparation of a debate, or in other phases 
of activity, several students may combine their efforts. 
A number of students may be given the use of a sepa- 
rate room, or even a corner of the classroom, where 
they may compare notes, divide the work to be done, 
organize results, and do whatever else is necessary in 
order to bring before the class the material for which 
they are responsible. Other study may be performed 
by individuals. It may, at times, be necessary to for- 
bid consultation in order to insure proper study by all 
members of a class. In general our own experience as 
teachers should be suggestive to us. At times, we need 
solitude for reflection; again, we need to consult freely 
with others to learn what they know, to exchange 
views, to argue, to stand by our own ideas with proofs, 
to amend them when the evidence compels alteration, 
and to get the benefit that can be obtained only by 
bringing mind in contact with mind. 

There will be many occasions when teacher and 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 199 

students will study together instead of having individ- 
ual or group work. It will not be a crime, then, to look 
into the book. On such occasions books will be opened 
and all will work with them freely, because they are 
satisfying felt needs instead of reciting words mem- 
orized more or less thoroughly. 

Training pupils for independent study 

It is necessary to teach children to study properly in 
order that the fabric of knowledge may be influenced, 
that experience may be reorganized along right lines, 
and that their efforts may not result in mastery of 
words rather than ideas. We also need to train them in 
right habits of study in order that they may learn to 
work independently and scientifically in what they 
have to do. They need such habits in school, and they 
need them both as children and adults in the life out- 
side of school. The teacher has no more important or 
worthy task than this one of training pupils to study 
well. How can he practice them in the various steps 
of study? This question would require a book for full 
answering, but some suggestions will be of assistance. 

a. Training to find the aim or problem. Nowhere 
more than in the matter of training students to find 
aims or ends to which they should direct their efforts 
is the relation of good teaching to proper study appar- 
ent. Those taught will imitate the teacher's method 
of working, and they will prepare for the kind of reci- 
tation exercise which a teacher is known to conduct. 



200 TYPES OF TEACHING 

If the teacher, when working with his class, habitually 
seeks aims, and sees the problems which swarm up 
in connection with every subject, the pupils will tend 
to follow his example. If, furthermore, when a recita- 
tion exercise is under way, the pupils are held to the 
presentation and discussion of important aims, pupils 
will study so as to meet this requirement. In these 
ways, then, by example and by requirement, as well as 
by teaching, pupils can be trained in good habits of 
individual study. 

In taking up a new section of work in literature, 
geography, or history, pupils should be given training 
in class where the teacher can help in asking the 
questions which they think should be treated of in the 
new section. They should be given practice in turning 
to the textbook and finding one after another the ques- 
tions which the author must have had in mind and 
which he has answered in the text. For example, the 
pupils may turn to the story of "The Fall of Troy." 
They may need help to find such questions as these: 
"How long did the war last?" "In what manner did 
the Greeks and Trojans fight?" "What plan was 
made by the Greeks to capture the city?" With the 
list thus started, the pupils may be required to find 
during their study period the rest of the questions 
answered. •* 

In arithmetic problems, much difficulty arises be- 
cause pupils do not clearly determine what they are 
required to do. They need to be held to definite word- 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 201 

ing of the thing required, first in class with the teacher, 
and later in the study period with other examples. 

In nature study and constructive work, there should 
be reflection upon the problems possible. In a class 
which was to study about fish, the teacher suggested 
that inasmuch as people often keep goldfish, it might 
be well to study about them, and asked the pupils what 
they would need to think about if they had goldfish 
for pets. There was a goldfish in the room, and the 
pupils had been watching it for some days. There was 
no lack of questioning on their part as to kind and size 
of aquarium, what to put into the aquarium, the 
amount of water needed, how often to change it, the 
amount and kind of food, the diseases to be expected, 
how to overcome them, and so on until the list was 
long. In later lessons about animals, the pupils, after a 
lesson or two like this one, should prepare their own 
lists independently and bring them to class. 

Since school life and community and world life be- 
long together, pupils should be required to seek for 
aims in their reading and experience outside of school. 
' Why should a country concern itself over the rebel- 
lions which occur in some of the countries of Central 
and South America?" "Why are certain European 
countries at war? " " What is the Interstate Commerce 
Commission and what are its duties?" "What is the 
cause of a certain recent flood? " etc. The newspapers 
and the subjects of conversation in the homes should 
send pupils to school full of questions. But, strangely 



202 TYPES OF TEACHING 

enough, the children in our schools must frequently be 
given practice in looking and listening to discover that 
here are things well worth their consideration. 

Very often pupils are helped to find aims by suggest- 
ing to them some social service. "How can you help 
absent pupils make up the work they have missed?" 
" We are to give the assembly program. What shall we 
do to entertain our schoolmates?" A party is to be 
given by a class and the teacher asks, "What are the 
things we must think about and plan for in giving this 
party?" 

If a teacher is never able to lead her pupils to sug- 
gest specific reasons for their composition work or their 
arithmetic, for history, geography, manual training, 
and for the other subjects, he either lacks insight him- 
self into the nature and possibilities of his materials, or 
he is exceedingly clumsy in his teaching, because pupils 
often need no more than an opportunity to ask the 
questions which they are usually compelled to conceal 
in their own minds. They are unskilled because un- 
practiced. Both they and the teacher will grow in 
ability if the work be undertaken together. What is 
made clear in class in this direction should be required 
in individual study and should appear in the recitation 
lesson later. These aims can be stated and compared, 
the more important and more inclusive can be ac- 
cepted, and the wording can be corrected as needed. 

b. Training to judge of hypotheses. It is quite natural 
for people, when they find themselves in a difficulty of 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 203 

some kind, to cast about in their minds for a way out. 
This is what takes place when we are confronted with a 
situation which requires thought. We make up a 
working theory or hypothesis and then we try to use 
this theory in the solution of the difficulty. We can 
save trouble for ourselves by first considering whether 
our theory or hypothesis has any bearing at all upon 
our difficulty and whether it really offers a possible 
solution. 

In the training of students in their use of hypotheses, 
it is not necessary to spend so much time and effort in 
trying to have them suggest theories as it is in having 
them examine their theories to see how relevant and 
adequate they are. Pupils are usually very willing to 
"guess" the solution, or cause, or effect, or way of 
working, or whatever is required; but the trouble is 
that the guesses are frequently wide of the mark. It 
does not mend matters much to dismiss these guesses 
as ridiculous and wild. Students must learn to see for 
themselves that they are so, and must reject or alter 
them. They must learn to criticize their own ideas 
and discover whether they give any promise of help. 

The only way for pupils to learn this very necessary 
lesson is to be held to the criticism of their theories as 
they offer them to discover whether they bear on the 
problem at hand at all, and, in case they are relevant, 
to see whether they tend in the right direction. The 
pupil, who in answer to the question, " Why do oranges 
grow in Florida and not in New Jersey?" replied, 



204. TYPES OF TEACHING 

"There are many alligators in Florida," could discover 
for himself that his answer had nothing whatever to do 
with the question and he should have been compelled 
to do so. Had he suggested difference of climate or 
soil, then he ought to have stopped to think whether 
those factors could possibly affect the situation. In 
case he decided in the affirmative, he would have been 
ready to proceed with his investigation to see if he was 
correct in his theory. 

Professor Thorndike * gives the very helpful illus- 
tration of the boy trying to find his way to a certain 
house. At every cross or branch road, he must stop 
and think whether the path leads him to his destina- 
tion. This is what children and adults must do when 
in study they are pushing forward to an aim. They 
must examine the paths to see if they lead to the de- 
sired goal. The teacher must by practice show stu- 
dents how to do this, and must both encourage and 
require them to practice the close scrutiny of their 
hypotheses whenever they use them. 

c. Collecting and valuing data. In the chapters on 
"The Assignment of Lessons" and "The Recitation 
Exercise," suggestions are given for helping pupils to 
know the sources from which data bearing on the aim 
are to be found. In the early stages of teaching pupils 
to study, these sources will have to be brought to 
mind very clearly before individual search begins. 
Later, as pupils grow more skillful in handling books, 
1 E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 150. 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 205 

and know better where to turn for materials, it may 
not be necessary to say so much about sources. The 
pupils in the higher grades of the elementary schools 
and students in high schools should know how to find 
what is in their textbooks, and also what the school 
library contains which is helpful in working up a given 
subject. They should also know how to use the public 
library quickly and advantageously. 

In order to use books of reference profitably, pupils 
must learn to cull what they need at the time and dis- 
regard the rest of the material. They need not read 
the entire book, nor even an entire chapter. They 
must be held to seeing quickly, as they scan a page, 
what gives promise of help, and then to a closer scru- 
tiny to determine the relevancy and value of the part 
that attracts attention. What is found may be rele- 
vant but not valuable. It may be valuable in some 
other connection but not relevant to the problem at 
hand. Through class practice, insight and skill in this 
quick search for, and evaluation of, material can be 
increased. Practice in individual study must follow 
to secure the best results. 

The same standards must be applied to data gained 
from other sources than books. " Do they relate to the 
problem? " and "Will they aid in finding the answer? " 
are the tests for pupils to apply. Material which can- 
not stand these tests must be rejected, however val- 
uable it might be in other connections. 

d. Teaching to organize material. The place to begin 



TYPES OF TEACHING 

training pupils to organize is in the primary grades 
where stories are told, games are played, and various 
activities are planned. When a story is told by pupils 
or teachers, the pupils should occasionally be asked to 
suggest a title. They can be aided to exercise critical 
judgment in regard to the titles suggested so as to 
choose one that is interesting, not too long, and that 
takes in the whole story instead of one incident. They 
can decide in telling a story what they will tell first, 
next, and so on, forming in this way, a crude topical 
outline which should grow in excellence from grade to 
grade. In plays and games, they can prepare a similar 
outline of the parts of their activity. In making some 
object, they can plan the various stages of their work, 
or, in reviewing it, can tell what they have done, step 
by step. 

In the reading-lessons, in geography, history, civics, 
literature, and other similar subjects in which a 
thought is carried along through several paragraphs 
or chapters, the pupils, even in the third or fourth 
grade, can select the important topics dealt with in 
subject-matter suited to their development. By work- 
ing with the teacher, they learn to word these topics 
smoothly, to make them interesting and suggestive of 
the thought, and to observe other standards which 
they help to establish through their own criticism. 

This test is suggested for a teacher of a grade not 
lower than the fourth. Select some short interesting 
article from the newspaper, read it to the class, and 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 207 

ask the pupils to write a good newspaper heading for 
it. After three minutes, collect the written papers, 
which should include name and date, and file them. 
During the following week, talk with the pupils about 
good headings, and have them try to write some. At 
the close of the week, give a test similar to the first 
one, and note the improvement. It will be found that 
the pupils have set up standards of excellence in even 
so short a time. 

It does not require many exercises with the class to 
train pupils to write paragraph headings and to find 
the leading points under their general subject. The 
results presented by various pupils will show differ- 
ences, but that is not a fault. 

This organization should be required in all subjects 
where material offers opportunity for thought mastery. 
It may require slow progress for a time, but it makes 
rapid work possible after a few weeks of practice. If 
the teachers in the primary grades will introduce it and 
follow it up, and if the teachers of higher grades will 
keep building upon the foundation thus laid, our 
school work will be revolutionized in the amount and 
quality of the results achieved. 

e. Deferring conclusions and forming independent 
judgments. Recently a young woman student assured 
the writer that she positively knew that a certain plan 
of work suggested by another member of the class 
would not work. When asked for proof, she was 
obliged to acknowledge that she did not really know, 



208 TYPES OF TEACHING 

but that it was her opinion that the proposed plan was 
not feasible. It was suggested that the way to find out 
was to try the plan with children and note results. 
This student was independent in her views, which was 
commendable; but she permitted opinion to take the 
place of evidence, which was not so praiseworthy. In 
this instance she should have deferred her conclusion 
until evidence enough had been obtained. 

The case just cited is typical of many class situa- 
tions. Students need to be held to the question, "Do 
we know enough about the matter before us to answer 
our question definitely?" They should be encouraged 
to take this attitude in class discussions and in their 
individual work. The questions of public interest 
discussed in the periodicals of the day afford almost 
constant occasion for suspense of judgment either be- 
cause the information given is incomplete or is of 
doubtful authenticity. It would help pupils if they 
were to consider in class some of the news items from 
the papers and to discuss their probable value. The 
source must be considered; also the character of the 
paper from which the items are taken. In some mat- 
ters, the proof must be weighed. Often the scientific 
accuracy of the authors consulted must constitute a 
factor in dealing with evidence. In reading historical 
novels or historical plays, one needs to keep these facts 
in mind. The author was not working for a scientific 
presentation but rather for a literary effect. His 
authority as an historian cannot pass unchallenged. 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 209 

Pupils sometimes have to be almost compelled to 
take note of the inaccuracies in the recitations of their 
classmates. They should frequently question state- 
ments made, should differ radically, and should see 
that conclusions are not justified because of lack of 
evidence. In these situations, the teacher so frequently 
does all the work that pupils learn to be passive. If 
permitted and aided, they will soon learn to watch the 
work of their classmates, to argue, and to maintain 
that conclusions are either incorrect or are based upon 
insufficient evidence. 

In a class recently observed, a pupil stated that the 
rainfall of Germany is less than that of Great Britain, 
and that this fact gives Germany the advantage in the 
manufacture of cotton. Another member of the class 
at once opposed this conclusion with the argument that 
the greater amount of moisture is favorable to cotton 
manufacture, and that, therefore, Great Britain has 
the advantage over Germany. Here is a simple case of 
independent thinking and one that points the way 
along which pupils may be taught to work. They 
must watch the evidence and see if they agree with 
conclusions derived from it. They must examine con- 
clusions and see if the evidence warrants them. They 
can do this in very simple matters, or, in advanced 
classes, they can consider situations which are com- 
plicated and obscure. 

/. Testing conclusions. When a problem in algebra 
is solved, the student does not stop until he has sub- 



210 TYPES OF TEACHING 

stituted the value of x to see if it satisfies the equa- 
tion. If it does, he is content; if it does not, he must 
examine his procedure to determine his error. The 
test of his result is found in its application. So the 
pupils must do with their reasoned-out theories in 
other directions. They must apply them to real or im- 
aginary situations to see whether they will meet the dif- 
ficulty. Pupils who arrive at the conclusion that winds 
blowing from the ocean are rain-bearing winds, while 
winds blowing from the land toward the ocean are dry 
winds, should not let the theory pass without finding 
out in some way if it is correct. They may do this by 
referring to conditions in regions with which they are 
familiar. They may also do it by referring to the maps 
in their geographies which show winds and rainfall. 
Theories unverified, untested, are of little more value 
than opinions. 

As has just been suggested, verification may be ob- 
tained by comparing one's results with the textbook. 
The answer in arithmetic is usually verified in this 
way. Causes and effects in geography, history, and 
science may also be verified by reference to the text. 
Sometimes verification comes through comparison of 
one's conclusions with those obtained by others, or by 
reference to the experience of others. The teacher 
may often stamp conclusions as right or wrong by 
pointing out the situations to which they will or will 
not apply, or by showing the strength or weakness of 
the train of thought which led up to them. 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 211 

The pupil can be helped to become independent in 
this process of verifying and applying his results by 
being shown how to do it and then being obliged to use 
the step. How can you find out if your answer is cor- 
rect? Where will you look for verification? What 
people can tell you whether you are right or wrong? 
What experiment will prove your answer? If your 
theory is correct, what facts will it explain? These are 
some of the questions which will help pupils in the 
testing of results. They ought, after some training, to 
ask the question best suited to their own particular 
problem and then work along the line of the answer. 

g. Thoughtful memorizing. Memorizing that is 
based upon the thought content of subject-matter 
rather than upon the order of words is called thought- 
ful memorizing. An exact order of words may be 
learned, as in poetry, definitions, and rules; or the 
questions studied, the main points made in the an- 
swers, the order of the steps in a chain of reasoning, or 
the nature of the verification may be learned so as to 
be remembered, even though the wording may not be 
fixed. Both kinds of thoughtful memorizing are neces- 
sary at times in order to preserve the results of study 
for later profit or pleasure. 

In either case, the place to begin is with the consid- 
eration of the ideas presented. In the course of class 
study or individual work, through processes already 
described, the thought is gained, the author's ques- 
tions and his answers to his questions are sifted out of 



212 TYPES OF TEACHING 

the text, the steps in a process of reasoning are worked 
out, topical outlines are prepared, and other kinds of 
work are done as the material demands. In the study 
of art and literature, points of excellence, of strength, 
of delicacy, and the like are brought out and enjoyed. 
There is thoughtful work, enjoyment, appreciation 
throughout. Then, in order to keep what should be 
retained, a definite effort must be made to memorize. 
The greater the interest and the understanding con- 
nected with the preceding study, the less the amount 
of drill required. 

Since memorizing is one kind of habit-formation, the 
steps which belong to the latter process apply to it as 
well. There must, first of all, be the clear idea of the 
thing to be memorized, and there must then be enough 
attentive repetition to fix it. Attention not only in- 
sures accuracy, but it greatly shortens the amount of 
time necessary to memorize. Thoughtful study of the 
facts to be remembered should provide the clear idea. 
Thoughtful repetition must follow, and must continue 
at intervals until the end is accomplished. After study- 
ing a section of subject-matter, the pupils should be 
shown how to recall the questions they have found and 
the way in which they were answered. Verbatim repro- 
ductions are not necessary, since the thoughts in this 
case are more important than words, and exact word- 
ing is not essential. They should also be given prac- 
tice in class in recalling the points made in handling 
the subject and in stating the results. With the model 






TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 213 

given them, they should be required in recitation peri- 
ods to present results which have been prepared in this 
way. This will necessitate the proper use of the mem- 
orizing process in their individual study. If the teacher 
persists in calling for important ideas contained in the 
lesson studied, and for parts which are considered 
especially valuable, with the reasons for the choice, 
the students will feel the spur of necessity in preparing 
for such recitation periods and mere rote learning will 
be broken up. Another consideration is that they will 
enjoy such preparation more. 

When lessons or parts of lessons are to be learned 
exactly as they stand, there should again be the idea 
of meaning preceding the learning, and the selection 
should be memorized by thought units instead of by 
lines, verses, or stanzas. The repetition should follow 
with close attention and with the effort to cut the 
process of memorizing short. If need be, there should 
be a time competition in order to hasten the process. 
The teacher must gradually accustom the pupils to 
taking care of this process for themselves. In inter- 
mediate grades the pupils ought to know the steps in 
the memorizing process, and they ought to be exercised 
in their use with the idea of making them proficient. 
It must be remembered, however, that it is necessary 
to recall from time to time what has been learned, the 
intervals between the drill periods becoming gradually 
longer. A thing once learned does not always stick in 
the mind. It requires several renewals to insure per- 



214 TYPES OF TEACHING 

manency. One of the most serious defects in inexperi- 
enced teachers is their failure to recognize this fact. 
They prepare and conduct a fine development lesson, 
and because of lack of later attention, the results are 
lost to a very large extent. People must frequently 
remember ideas and they often need exact verbal 
forms. We should therefore train our pupils to retain 
what is worth while in their school studies and train 
them also in sane and economical ways of committing 
these valuable parts to memory. 

Suggestions to the teacher 

In order that pupils may know how to employ the 
various aspects of thoughtful study when they work 
alone, it will be found advisable for the teacher to 
work with them in class, going through the actual 
processes, using textbooks, reference books, and what- 
ever else may be necessary. When the model has been 
given and the students have the right idea, then as- 
signments should be made which will involve the use 
of the processes thus illustrated. 

One attempt to employ the right method of working 
should not end the matter. Thoughtful study is con- 
stantly necessary; therefore there must be persistent 
and repeated effort along this line. Pupils should re- 
port not only upon the results of their study, but also 
upon their ways of working so that wasteful and inac- 
curate methods may be eliminated and better ones 
substituted. The pupil who has succeeded should tell 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 215 

how he worked for his material. His success should 
encourage others. Those who have done poorly need 
investigation so that the cause of their failure may be 
found and eliminated. The work cannot be done in a 
week or a term, though the faithful teacher will accom- 
plish enough in a few weeks to reward her endeavors. 
The training of pupils should begin with simple 
material and with easy requirements, — both as to 
kind and amount of work. If the problem is to be 
found in the text, a selection should be chosen for 
beginners in which the problem is easily discovered. 
If there is to be organization, the amount of materials 
should be limited at first, and the main points should 
not be too obscure. The teacher will find it necessary 
to choose from textbooks and reference books the 
most suitable material. In stories of inventions and 
discoveries, in accounts of famous men, in historical 
narratives some excellent selections can be secured 
for the purpose of training in study. As pupils grow 
more mature, or as they grow more skilled in their 
ability to study, they can work with much more diffi- 
cult material, because they grow more competent to 
find the salient points and to disregard the unimport- 
ant. They grow in ability to cover ground and conse- 
quently can take longer lessons. The teacher is cau- 
tioned not to push the work too fast at first. If he tries 
to introduce this work in every lesson every day, he 
will cause some pedagogical fatalities, and may end 
with abandoning the whole plan as a failure. 



216 TYPES OF TEACHING 

In the recitation period, the pupils must be held to 
the method of procedure put before them in the assign- 
ment, because pupils will prepare the kind of lessons 
that they know will be called for. Unless the teacher 
is consistent in following up the assignment, pupils will 
prepare their work in the same thoughtless, unproduc- 
tive way to which they have grown accustomed. 

As a matter of economy of time and efficiency in 
their work, pupils must be taught how to use book 
helps, such as tables of contents, indexes, the diction- 
ary, the card catalogue, the literary index, and the 
encyclopaedia. The use of part of these helps can be 
learned through explanations and drills in class. For 
library helps, classes can frequently be taken to a 
neighboring library, where either the librarian or an 
assistant can show the children where the various 
helps are located and how they should be used. 

Testing classes and teachers 

Supervisors will find it rather an easy matter to test 
the advancement of pupils and the quality of the 
teacher's instruction in the matter of study. A few 
tests are suggested herewith. 

An example in arithmetic can be written on the 
board or slips containing the example can be given to 
the members of the class. At a signal the class begins 
to work according to the directions on the slip which 
call for these facts: (a) What is required? (b) What is 
given? (c) How should the example be worked? When 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 217 

all have finished who can do what is asked, the papers 
can be collected and quickly sorted into groups accord- 
ing to grade, — e.g., A, B, C, or D, — and the number 
of pupils belonging to each grade noted. The papers 
should be left with the teacher as a basis for special 
work with those pupils who need it. Later tests of 
the same nature will show whether the teacher is mak- 
ing progress with her class. 

A short story may be read, and the pupils asked to 
write a title. The papers can be collected, sorted, and 
rated as above. 

A selection from some text can be read and the 
pupils required (a) to write the author's question, and 
(6) to write the answer. These papers can be col- 
lected and rated. 

Typewritten or printed slips containing suitable sub- 
ject-matter can be given the pupils who are then 
directed to write the heading and the main topics. 
These papers, as in the case of the others, can be 
collected, sorted and rated. 

If the supervisor or examiner desires, a time limit 
may be set to these tests. When the time has expired, 
the pencils should be laid down at once and the papers 
collected. If the pupils have, in advance, written the 
date and their names, the papers can be used to refer 
to later to note progress or to show the teacher which 
pupils need help. 

Other tests may be devised to test progress in the 
use of other steps in study as well as in knowledge of 



218 TYPES OF TEACHING 

subject-matter. Those suggested above have been 
tried and found practicable. Pupils in the fourth 
grade and in all higher classes should, after a few 
weeks of training, be able to read silently a selection of 
several pages of material adapted to their develop- 
ment and interests, write the subject, the main topics 
covered, the questions which they would like to have 
answered about matters suggested by the text, and 
also a list of words the meanings of which they need to 
know to understand the thought of the selection. They 
should do this in a period of not longer than twenty or 
twenty-five minutes. Fourth grade pupils have gone 
through such tests with success, thus demonstrating 
the ability of pupils to work independently, thought- 
fully, and quickly. 

References: F. M. McMurry, How to Study and Teaching How 
to Study; L. B. Earhart, Teaching Children to Study. 

EXERCISES 

1. What would be the value of giving a class in arithmetic such 
exercises as the following and requiring them to make the prob- 
lem? A man received an income of $2000, and paid $300 for 
rent, $25 for taxes, and $50 for life-insurance. 

A boy brought a quart of milk for ten cents and gave the store- 
keeper twenty-five cents. 

2. What would be the gain to a class of occasionally reading the 
arithmetic examples one by one, stating what is given, what is to 
be found, and the correct way of working, without stopping the 
class exercise to perform the actual operations? 

3. Since minds work according to natural laws, why train pupils to 
study? 

4. Is telling or showing the better way to make clear to pupils the 
way to study? What suggestion to the teacher is involved in 
your answer? 



TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 219 

5. Is it always necessary for the teacher to help the pupils become 
conscious of the aim for which they should work? How else can 
they get their aims than by the teacher's aid? 

6. What aims can little children have in their first reading lessons? 

7. What aims are possible for oral and written composition? 

8. What opportunities exist in connection with the great European 
war of 1914 for training pupils to defer judgment and to ques- 
tion statements? 

9. If a fifth grade class is to use reference books, what preliminary 
help should it have? How much help should an eighth grade 
have that has been trained throughout its school course in habits 
of independent study? 

10. Under what circumstances would you accept a clumsily-worded 
aim or topical outline from a class in preference to furnishing a 
perfect one of your own composition? How can pupils be helped 
to improve in this respect? 

11. When pupils recited lessons from memory, the use of the text- 
book in class was forbidden. Show how using the book in class is 
an aid, possibly a necessity, in thoughtful study. 

12. What can be done about the application of principles which 
pupils work out in their study of morals? What difficulties are 
in the way? 

13. What is the effect upon the work of pupils when they know that 
not only the teacher but their classmates as well will call them to 
account for inaccurate or obscure statements? 

14. What effect does it have upon a class to throw upon it the respon- 
sibility for asking questions and for checking mistaken answers? 

15. Suggest how home-environment can be utilized in connection 
with some of the factors of study such as motivation, collecting 
data, and application. 

16. What arguments can you advance in favor of studying the mean- 
ing of a rule, definition, poem, or other piece of subject-matter 
before memorizing it? 

17. Prepare an examination in arithmetic and one in history which 
will test the ability of the pupils to do thoughtful work. 



XV 

MAKING LESSON PLANS 

Why a lesson plan is necessary 

A lesson plan is the preparation made by a fore- 
sighted teacher to be used as a guide in teaching. It is 
as necessary for the teacher to make this preparation 
as it is for a general to plan his campaign, for the engi- 
neer to plan his bridge, or for the merchant to plan 
for the trade of the coming season. The plan directs 
effort so that desired results are sure to follow, and to 
follow with economy of time and effort. It makes it 
more likely that the teacher will include all that should 
be taught in connection with a given topic; also, that 
procedure will follow the lines that it should and will 
not wander far afield. It is one of the marks of distinc- 
tion between people in the state of savagery and people 
who are civilized that the latter exercise foresight and 
plan for the future to a much greater extent than the 
former. This procedure enables them to achieve re- 
sults at which people less thoughtful can only marvel. 

A teacher's task is highly complicated. In the first 
place, a prescribed course of study for his grade must 
be completed within a term. In the second place, 
there is a group of pupils of a certain stage of develop- 
ment, and possessing varying amounts of experience 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 221 

who must be brought into contact with this course of 
study in such a way as to master its values. If the 
teacher does no more than see that the subject-matter 
is memorized, or told in the pupils' language, a certain 
crude planning must occur to make sure that the speci- 
fied course is completed within the given time. If, 
however, the course of study is to be used as a means 
of influencing the experience of the learners, is to result 
in knowledge, attitude, conduct, or skill, there must be 
planning which considers much more than the subject- 
matter prescribed by the school authorities . There must 
be definite recognition of those who are to be taught. 

What a plan should include 

It is likely to be a teacher's first thought that a 
plan should indicate the subject-matter to be pre- 
sented to a class. It should show this, but it should 
show other matters as well. Following is a list of the 
things which a complete plan should contain : — 

a. Subject-matter. 

(1) The specific purposes to be accomplished through the 
subject-matter included in the plan. 

(2) The subject-matter as a whole or in outline perspec- 
tive. 

b. Class procedure. 

(1) The development of the pupil's aim. 

(2) The method of treating the subject-matter. 

(3) The provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and 
assignments. 

(4) References and illustrative material to be employed. 

(5) The verification and application. 



222 TYPES OF TEACHING 

This outline of a plan may appear formidable at 
first, but a careful examination will show that it 
requires only that which a teacher must think about if 
the work is to be done thoughtfully; also, that after the 
learner has grown accustomed to this careful prepara- 
tion, there will be very little that must be written in 
the preparation of a plan. Let us take up the items 
one by one and see what they require. 

The specific purposes to be accomplished through the 
subject-matter included in the plan. The specific pur- 
poses are often called the teacher's aims. They indi- 
cate that in planning any lesson, the teacher has aims 
in view which the subject-matter of the plan alone can 
accomplish. Thus, in teaching about "The Gleaners," 
the specific purposes might be to lead the class to see 
Normandy peasants harvesting as Millet saw them, 
to share his feeling about them. In teaching "Lines to 
a Waterfowl," the purposes might be to see how and 
what Bryant was led to think of his own life in relation 
to Divine Power; also, to enjoy the beauty of both 
thought and language in this masterpiece. In a gram- 
mar lesson, the purpose of the subject-matter em- 
ployed may be to show that a verb must agree with its 
subject in person and number; in geography, to ex- 
plain why the corn belt is located where it is; in arith- 
metic, to show that the number of decimal places in 
the product equals the number of decimal places in the 
multiplier plus the number of decimal places in the 
multiplicand. 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 223 

The purposes to be worked for are along the lines of 
the aims of education in general. That is, the purpose 
may be to increase knowledge. Most of the aims sug- 
gested in the preceding paragraph have this function. 
Another purpose is the influencing of feeling, the arou- 
sal of appreciation. This is one of the aims stated for 
teaching " Lines to a Waterfowl," namely, to enjoy 
the beauty of both thought and language in this mas- 
terpiece. Still another general purpose is to increase 
skill or to form habits. In a lesson plan, such a purpose 
is made specific by stating just what is to be done in 
a given lesson. Thus, in a penmanship lesson, the 
purpose of the teacher may be to improve the forma- 
tion of the capital letter A; or, in an art lesson, to 
show how trees look against the sky in winter, or how 
the use of a darker shade on a lighter one makes 
work more effective. 

It is a common lack in teachers that they do not 
determine in advance of their recitations just what is 
the specific function of the subject-matter to be em- 
ployed. They accept a course of study, or a specified 
textbook, and work through from start to finish with- 
out seeing just what each section of material can be 
made to render in the way of service. They will teach 
lesson after lesson "to increase the appreciation of 
literature," but unless they find just what is to be 
appreciated in each selection studied, they are quite 
sure to fail in the general purpose. It ought not to be 
possible to use the same statement of purpose for 



StU TYPES OF TEACHING 

many lessons. Each one has or should have some- 
thing which is peculiar to itself and which cannot be 
transferred. This the teacher should discover and 
utilize. 

The subject-matter as a whole or in outline perspective. 
In some lessons, especially in primary grades, only one 
fact is taught, as when we teach that 3 + 4=7. Again, 
the material possesses no logical sequence which one 
needs to put in outline form; for example, the reading 
lessons in primary grades. In plans dealing with such 
subject-matter, no outline showing the structure of 
the material is necessary. In most plans, however, 
several phases of subject-matter must be indicated, 
that is, there must be an outline showing its organiza- 
tion. Even the simple poems of childhood have clearly 
marked steps which should be noted. Just as pupils 
need to organize their data so as to master it and to 
make a good report to the class, so the teacher needs 
to organize his subject-matter so as to master it and to 
prepare to teach it properly. In order to present the 
subject of what a lesson plan should contain, the 
author has organized the subject under the general 
heads (a) Subject-matter, and (b) Class procedure, each 
of these topics having several subheads. This arrange- 
ment shows the structure of the material and makes 
possible a complete and orderly discussion. 

An outline should follow the logical order of the 
subject-matter, that is, the order of dependence or 
natural sequence. If one were to teach the manufac- 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 225 

turing industries of England, he would, according to 
the order of dependence, arrange his topics as: (1) 
Natural features which make manufacturing possible. 
(2) What the manufactures of England are. (3) 
Where these industries are located; and so on. In his- 
tory, the chronological order may be followed, when 
there is no logical relationship. Whatever the* order, 
the arrangement of the topics should give a perspec- 
tive of the ground to be covered. Furthermore, the 
teacher will find it helpful to include no more ground 
in one plan than can be covered by a brief outline, 
because this outline should be kept clearly in mind 
during the teaching process for which it forms the 
basis. It is to be the teacher's guide and therefore 
ought to be present constantly. A few large points 
can be held firmly when many small ones would defeat 
the very purpose of the separation of the material into 
parts, that is, mastery. 

The development of the pupils* aim. When the 
teacher has decided upon the specific purposes to be 
accomplished through the subject-matter, and has 
analyzed the latter into large units so as to obtain a 
good perspective of the whole, as well as a convenient 
working basis, the actual class procedure must be defi- 
nitely provided for. The point of departure here is the 
point where the subject-matter closely touches the 
interests or need of the pupils, that is, what some one 
has called the "point of contact." The place where 
need or interest focuses may not coincide with the first 



226 TYPES OF TEACHING 

topic in the teacher's logical or chronological analysis, 
but it is not necessary or obligatory that it should. 
The teacher's outline of the Revolutionary War might 
begin with "Causes," while the interest of the pupils 
might center upon some of the activities or conse- 
quences of that war. The teacher's outline of Cali- 
fornia might have "Location" for the first topic; the 
point of contact for the pupils might be the fact that 
some of their friends spend the winters there, or the 
fact that much of our fruit comes from that State. 
Where interest centers, or where a need can be brought 
to the focus in such a way that pupils can be made con- 
scious of it, there the pupils' aim must be located. The 
plan should show briefly what this point in the subject- 
matter is and how the teacher intends to make the 
pupils conscious of the end for which they are to work. 
Many lessons begin without any consciousness on 
the part of the pupils of any aim whatsoever. Some- 
times the teacher sets up an aim for the class. As has 
been shown in the preceding chapters, as well as in 
recent books on teaching pupils to study, it is possible 
and advisable to get pupils to state their own aims, or 
for the teacher to relate his statement of aim so closely 
to the knowledge and interests of pupils that the 
latter can instantly adopt the teacher's aim as their 
own. This does not mean that the teacher is habitually 
to establish aims for pupils. Such procedure marks 
the unskillful teacher. Reflection upon what pupils 
know and are interested in will reveal a basis closely 



MAKING LESSON PLANS <m 

enough related to the subject-matter to be taught to 
furnish the starting-point for its treatment. The plan 
should show how the teacher intends to utilize this old 
knowledge or the interests of the class so as to lead the 
pupils either to state the aim themselves or to accept 
the teacher's statement of it. In the illustrative plans 
shown later, this procedure will be made clear. 

The method of treating the subject-matter. It has 
fallen to the lot of the writer to examine many hun- 
dreds of lesson plans prepared by students and teach- 
ers. A very common fault in these plans was the inclu- 
sion of every item of subject-matter instead of a mere 
synopsis or outline, and, on the method side, the writ- 
ing of scores of questions to cover every item of the 
subject-matter. Such plan-making is burdensome and 
useless. Probably no teacher is ever able to follow 
such a plan in practice because pupils do not answer in 
the ways expected when such plans are prepared. The 
teacher is soon thrown off the track and the teaching 
procedure limps along to a sorry conclusion. It would 
be better far to prepare an outline or synopsis of the 
material to be taught, starting from the pupils' aim, 
and arranging the items in the order in which the 
pupils are likely to come to them from that starting- 
point. This gives the so-called psychological arrange- 
ment of subject-matter. It may not follow the order of 
topics in the teacher's preliminary survey but it will 
cover all the ground of the latter. It will probably be 
much fuller than the teacher's outline, though the 



228 TYPES OF TEACHING 

teacher is cautioned not to make it a miniature text- 
book. 

While the plan, on the subject-matter side, should 
give the material in condensed form, it should, on the 
procedure side, indicate how the pupils are to be 
brought in contact with the material indicated. As 
has been suggested, detailed questions are a waste of 
labor. If questions are to be asked, only those should 
be given which from time to time direct the thought 
forward. These questions will correspond to the main 
topics of the outline of the subject-matter and may be 
placed beside them on the page, each question being 
opposite the topic which it introduces. If pupils are to 
recite on prepared topics, or read assigned references, 
the plan should show these facts. If they are to consult 
textbooks, or if they are to reason from one conclusion 
to another, the plan should make provision for such 
procedure. In short, the teacher should make clear 
how he expects the pupils to get into their minds the 
matter which he plans to give them. If it be by devel- 
oping questions, by observation, by experimentation, 
by reading, by telling, or by some other method, the 
plan should show that the teacher has anticipated his 
procedure and has made arrangements for it. A 
teacher is sometimes confused if the supervisor says, 
"Your subject-matter is well outlined and your ques- 
tions are good; but how do you expect your pupils to 
gain the answers to your questions?" This important 
detail should not be overlooked. 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 229 

The provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and 
assignments. Frequently during the teaching of the 
lesson or series of lessons needed to cover the subject- 
matter of a single plan, it is necessary to introduce 
reviews and drill exercises for the purposes which these 
alone can serve. Also, during the progress of teaching, 
questions may be expected to arise which will form the 
basis for later recitations and which should be defi- 
nitely assigned for study. The plan should make pro- 
vision for the necessary reviews, summaries, and drills, 
and for the assignments which grow out of the lesson. 

References and illustrative material to be employed. 
The tendency to refer to other books than the pupils' 
textbooks and to employ illustrative material freely 
is growing rapidly in these days of libraries and muse- 
ums and of appreciation of a community's resources. 
When a plan is to include references, the title of the 
book or magazine, the volume, and the page should 
be indicated. While a plan will probably never be 
used a second time just as it was the first time, the 
references which the teacher has employed may well 
be used again, and should therefore be preserved in a 
way that saves searching for them in a library the next 
time they are needed. Then, too, it is often necessary 
to give the references to the pupils for their use, and it 
is well to have them in such form that they can be 
given promptly and fully. For similar reasons, it is 
advisable to include mention of illustrative materials 
such as maps, charts, drawings, models, pictures, and 



230 TYPES OF TEACHING 

the like, from which pupils are to learn any of the facts 
of the lesson. The instructor is well fortified for his 
work who definitely plans for these aids to his teaching. 

Verification and application. No lesson which has 
for its purpose the solution of a problem, the mastery 
of a process, the elimination of a difficulty, or the sat- 
isfying of some conscious need, should be concluded 
without definitely referring to this motive, problem, or 
need to see how it has been satisfied through the lesson 
just given. "What did we start out to do?" "How 
have we done it?" "Does this meet the difficulty?" 
These are some suggested tests to be applied to the 
results of the work provided for in the plans. If the 
aim of the pupils was to learn how to copy numbers 
rapidly, they should at the end of the drill exercise 
recall this aim and state the means they have employed 
to accomplish it. If the aim was to find why General 
Burgoyne failed to complete his part of the British 
plan to gain possession of the Hudson River, the 
question and the answer should be put together at 
the close of the lesson or series of lessons in which the 
answer was found. 

Rules and definitions should be tested by employing 
them in the original situation from which the aim was 
derived. They should also be verified by reference to 
books or other sources. Processes can be similarly 
checked to see if they are accurate. 

It frequently is the case that results obtained in les- 
sons are to be made automatic. Rules must be applied 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 231 

and processes repeated until they become habitual, — 
until mastery is assured. Results must, at times, be 
memorized. Plans are not completed until definite 
provision has been made for testing, verifying, and 
applying results, or for memorizing that which is to 
be retained in definite form. This provision need not 
occupy much space in the plan, but the fact that it is 
there, even in brief form, means that the teacher has 
not overlooked this very important part of his teach- 
ing. The step of application, the last of the five formal 
steps, has its place in this part of the lesson plan. 

Teaching from the plan 

A lesson plan may be a help or a hindrance to a 
teacher, according to the way it is used. If the teacher, 
with plan-book before his eyes, follows it closely, 
disregarding the state of mind of his class, the ques- 
tions asked, the unexpected knowledge or ignorance 
revealed, his plan has been an obstacle to good, live 
teaching. If, on the contrary, the teacher fixes in his 
mind the ends he desires to reach, the place where the 
class is to begin, the large points of his outline, and the 
few questions which are to direct thought, he can, to 
a great extent, disregard the plan book and work face 
to face with the class, following the bendings of the 
pupils' thinking, and recognizing the value of the con- 
tributions made. He knows where he intends to go 
and the general direction in which he must travel. 
These basal ideas will keep him from going far astray, 



232 



TYPES OF TEACHING 



and they leave him free to make the lesson live and 
interesting instead of dry and formal. He will need to 
consult his plan in order to give references and assign- 
ments exactly. He may need to consult it sometimes 
to see if he is overlooking some part which he intends 
to teach, but he should not follow it slavishly because 
that is deadening and never leads to independence and 
power. 



Some considerations in plan-making 

a. Impossibility of complete plans in all subjects. 
Such complete plans as have been described in this 
chapter cannot be prepared in all subjects for every 
day. No teacher has the time and strength to do that 
amount of work. Pupils in training in normal schools 
will need to spend a great deal of time in plan-making 
because that is an important part of the process 
through which they become skilled teachers. As mas- 
tery is gained in handling subject-matter and pupils, 
the amount of planning can be decreased. The teacher 
in charge of a class, and responsible for it, should first 
examine the course of study with care to see what 
ground is to be covered in a term. The work to be done 
should be broken up into units and in estimate made 
of the time to be given to each. Plans more or less 
complete can then be prepared for each unit. Prom 
day to day sections of these unit plans will be em- 
ployed in teaching the class. This way of dealing with 
the term's work enables the teacher to keep his bear- 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 233 

ings, to see the place of each unit in the whole body of 
subject-matter; and it also secures a better distribu- 
tion of time than is likely to result if there is no pre- 
liminary division of time. 

b. Learning to shorten the 'process of plan-making. 
Since good teaching demands planning, and since it is 
out of the question for any teacher to make detailed 
plans every day, the question arises, How can the 
process of plan-making be shortened to working pro- 
portions and still result in efficient work? A teacher 
should school himself to master his material as a pub- 
lic speaker does his. It is a common experience for 
a lecturer or speaker to write out every word of his 
address when he first begins such work. He covers the 
ground with care, but loses something of personal 
touch with his audience. With effort he trains himself 
to speak from a mere outline of topics which he keeps 
before him. With further training and growing confi- 
dence, he finally masters the outline, and without 
notes faces his audience and delivers his message. The 
teacher should work for similar power in his own par- 
ticular field. Complete plans are necessary until tech- 
nique improves to the extent which renders detail un- 
necessary. The ptan should presently simmer down to 
the statement of the teacher's aim or aims, the pupils' 
aim, the few large topics of the subject-matter, and, the 
questions which introduce them. The references will 
also be needed. In the end, even this amount of writ- 
ing may not be necessary. The writer has seen splen- 



234 TYPES OF TEACHING 

didly planned lessons given when the only writing in 
evidence was the list of references on a small card. 
When plans are required by a supervisor or principal, 
a little writing will suffice to show the teacher's aim, 
the pupils' aim, the main divisions of the subject- 
matter, the few large questions, and the references. In 
the case of a strong teacher no more is necessary. 

c. Complete plans necessary at times. When a teach- 
er's work shows that his preparation is incomplete, a 
supervisor is justified in requiring fuller evidence of 
preparation than that just recommended for able 
teachers. Furthermore, even a successful teacher will 
find it necessary to fall back upon detailed planning 
when new material is undertaken in the usual grade, 
or when a higher class is to be taught. There are new 
elements introduced here which necessitate more fore- 
thought and more writing of plans. Then, too, even in 
the accustomed grade and with familiar material, the 
teacher will find himself kept in good pedagogical form 
if he now and then writes a complete plan. Such effort 
not only prevents backsliding, but makes for progress 
in efficiency of teaching. 

d. Making plans cannot safely be discontinued. 
Planning can never safely be discontinued. It has been 
one of the drawbacks of education that so many 
teachers have faced their pupils day after day with no 
preparation and no definite idea of what they intended 
to do. They went to school in the morning and things 
simply happened in succession. Progress was largely 



MAKING LESSON PLANS 235 

accidental. To remedy such conditions, plan-making 
is necessary. On the other hand, a teacher who has so 
thoroughly mastered the work of a given grade that he 
can see nothing new in it which requires fresh effort on 
his part should ask to be transferred to another grade. 
He has become stale in the place where he is and his 
class is sure to suffer. 

Summary. (1) A lesson plan is necessary in order that the 
desired results may be accomplished surely and economi- 
ically. (2) A plan should show the specific purposes, the 
subject-matter in large perspective, and the proposed 
method of bringing the pupils in touch with the subject- 
matter. It should indicate the references and illustrations 
to be employed ; also, the provision for verification and appli- 
cation. (3) Under specific purposes should be indicated what 
is to be accomplished through the subject-matter of this 
particular plan. (4) Through the outline from the teacher's 
point of view should be shown in a few inclusive headings 
the subject-matter in the order of dependence, or in the 
chronological order. (5) Under class procedure should be 
shown how the teacher expects to bring the pupils' aim to 
the consciousness of the pupils; also, the statement of that 
aim. Following this should appear the arrangement of the 
subject-matter as the pupils are to approach it, together 
with the questions which will introduce the main points and 
direct the thought forward. In this part of the plan should 
appear the provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and as- 
signments, the references and illustrative material; also, 
the provision for verification, application, and memorizing. 
(6) In teaching from a plan, a teacher should use it as a 
guide and not be a slave to it. He should have the main 
points in mind, and should refer to the plan as little as pos- 
sible. (7) Under general considerations, it is suggested that 



236 TYPES OF TEACHING 

the making of full plans is part of the process of making 
teachers ; that teachers in charge of classes should divide the 
term's work into large units, and deal with these units in their 
plans; that they should gradually learn to condense plans; 
and that they should finally learn to carry the plans in mem- 
ory excepting the few details which need to be used for refer- 
ence. It is suggested that plan-making can never be safely 
discontinued, and that even strong teachers are benefitted 
by preparing complete, detailed plans occasionally. Teach- 
ers who are shirking should be required to do so. 

References: C. A. and F. M. McMurry, The Method of the Reci- 
tation, chap, xiv; W. W. Charters, Methods of Teaching, chap, xxv; 
G. D. Stray er, A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, chap. xvi. 



APPENDIX 



SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSON PLANS 

I. The topic. 

II. The teacher's aim. (A specific statement of the responses of 
knowledge, attitude, feeling, action, conduct, or skill which the 
teacher intends to secure.) 

III. -Brief analysis of the topic, showing the principal things which 

must be known or done in order that the teacher's aims may be 
accomplished. Only the most important points should be 
given, and these should be arranged in logical order when such 
an order exists. 

IV. Procedure, and the psychological arrangement of the subject- 
matter to be taught. 



Subject-Matter 
1 

Former ideas and activities 
which serve as an introduction 
to the new topic. 



Procedure 



Questions, conversation, or 
review of former activities to 
help the pupils recall or reor- 
ganize previous ideas or experi- 
ences which are necessary as a 
basis for the new knowledge and 
which pave the way for its intro- 
duction. This preliminary exer- 
cise should lead the class to de- 
sire the new work and to appre- 
ciate its value, and out of it 
should come the aim as stated by 
the pupils. 



Organization of the knowl- 
edge or experiences which con- 
stitute the subject-matter of the 
new topic. The material should 
be arranged in detail in topical 
form, and in the order in which 
it will probably be taken up ; i.e., 
in psychological order rather 
than in logical order. The books 



The teacher's procedure in 
causing the class to gain or or- 
ganize the new knowledge or 
experience the new activity. It 
should include the pivotal ques- 
tions which introduce the main 
topics as indicated under Sub- 
ject-Matter 2. It should show 
what illustrations, illustrative 



238 



APPENDIX 



to be used should be named and 
the pages given. 



materials, and motor activities 
the teacher will employ. It 
should indicate, also, the place 
and nature of the summaries, 
reviews, drills, and assignments 
which occur during the devel- 
opment of the topic. 



Statement of the results which 
the teacher expects in the class 
as a consequence of the treat- 
ment of the new topic. — (See 
under "The teacher's aim," 
above.) 



Means by which the teacher 
proposes to test the accomplish- 
ment of the aim. Questions 
may be asked or topics assigned 
which involve the use of the new 
knowledge in some other relation 
than the one employed in class. 
The use of the ideas may be 
shown in the execution of some 
constructive work or in some 
social activity. 



References: McMurry, The Method of the Recitation, chaps. 
Vi-rx and xiv. Bagley, The Educative Process, chaps, xix-xxii. 
Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, chaps, i and x. Strayer, Syllabus 
of a Course on the Theory and Practice of Teaching in the Elementary 
Schools. Teachers College Record, January, 1903, p. 60. McMurry, 
How to Study and Teaching How to Study. Ear hart, Teaching Chil- 
dren to Study. r- 



LESSON PLAN IN READING FOR THE FIRST 

GRADE 1 */ 

I. Topic: This little pig went to market. 
II. Teacher's aims. 

(1) To have pupils read from blackboard, chart, and book, 
the Mother Goose rhyme, "This little pig went to market," 
which they already know by sound. 

(2) To have them learn to recognize at sight the words and 
phrases listed below under 2 C. 

III. Procedure and subject-matter. 



Subject-Matter 

1 

A. This pig went to market; 
This pig stayed at home; 
This pig had a bit of meat; 
This pig had none ; 
This pig said, "Wee, wee, 

wee, 
I can't find my way home." 



Procedure 
1 

A. What Mother Goose rhyme 
did we read in the last lesson? 

Which one did Althea's 
mother tell her? (Althea re- 
cites "This pig," etc.) 

See if I put it on the board 
as Althea said it. 

B. (Pupils' aim.) 

To see if the rhyme on the 
board is like Althea's rhyme. 



A. See A under 1 above. 



Write first line in script. 
Have it read by pupil. 

Treat other lines similarly. 

Finally have entire rhyme 
read by individuals and by 
class as a whole. 



B. See A under 1 above. 



B. Present printed chart show- 
ing same rhyme. 

Pupils read rhyme from 
chart. 



» Based upon a lesson given by Miss Clara James, formerly of the Speyer 
School, Teachers College, Columbia University. 



240 APPENDIX 

C. went, home, pig, market, C. Teacher to show cards each 
find, meat, a bit, to market, containing a word or phrase, 
at home, stayed, of meat, Pupils to find the same 
This pig, I can't, my. word on blackboard and 

chart. 

D. Rhyme in book. D. Pupils read rhyme in book. 

3 

E. What did Althea's mother 
teach her? Is it like the 
rhyme in our book? Is it 
like the rhyme on the black- 
board? 



LESSON PLAN IN COMPOSITION FOR THE 
SECOND GRADE 1 

I. Topic: A recipe for lemonade. 

II. Teacher's aim: To have pupils prepare and copy a recipe for 
making lemonade. 
III. Subject-matter and procedure. - 



Subject-Matter 
1 
A. Use of a recipe. 



Procedure 

1 

A. Mr. W.'s class tried to make 
lemonade, but did not like it. 
They like our kind better. 
How can we let them know 
how we made ours? 

(Pupils' aim.) 

To write a recipe for Mr. 
W.'s class, telling how to 
make good lemonade. 



To make lemonade for 18 A. 
people. 

Juice of 6 lemons. 

18 teaspoons of sugar. 

18 cups of water. 

Stir juice and sugar well, 
then add the water. 



How many pupils in our 
class? We shall write the 
recipe for lemonade for 18 
people. 

How many lemons used? 

How much sugar? 

And last of all? 

Mr. W.'s lemonade was 
not good because he did not 
stir it well. What shall we 
write to help him? Then 
what? (Explain add if 
necessary.) 

Each pupil to copy recipe 
for Mr. W.'s class. 

1 Based upon a lesson given by Miss Mott of the Ethical Culture School, 
New York City. 



LESSON PLAN IN COMPOSITION FOR THE 



I. 
II 

III. 



THIRD GRADE 1 



/ 



Topic: The School Assembly. 

Teacher's aim: To train the pupils in preparing an outline for a 
written composition on the school assembly. 
Procedure, and arrangement of subject-matter. 



Subject- Matter 

1 

The assembly. 
Hymn. 
Plays. 
Indian letter, etc. 



Procedure 

1 

A. How many were absent from 
assembly, last Friday? Who 
were present? Did you enjoy 
it? What parts did you en- 
joy? How can you share 
your pleasure with those of 
the class who were not there? 

(Pupils' aim.) 

To write an account of the 
last assembly for those mem- 
bers of the class who were 
absent. 

What shall we need to 
think about in writing this 
account? 

(Pupils' second aim.) 

To determine the title and 
the topics for the composi- 
tion. 



B. 



Possible suggestions : — 
The third assembly. 
Our third assembly. 
Second and fourth grade. 
Assembly. 

(A possible outline. The 
pupils may vary from this. 
Their order will be accepted 



A. Suggest a good title. 
(Pupils and teacher inspect 
titles and select the best 
offered, with reasons for se- 
lection.) 

B. What are the things we shall 
want to write about in our 
stories? 



1 Based upon a lesson conducted in the Demonstration School of the Co- 
lumbia University Summer Session by Miss Roxana Steele. 



APPENDIX 



243 






as given if it is good. If it is 
faulty, they will be helped to 
correct it.) 

(1) Opening exercises. 

(2) Announcements. 

By Ruth Helter. 
By three fifth-grade 
boys. 

(3) Program. 

Play by the second 
grade — The Pot of Gold. 
Play by the fourth grade 
— Peace Pipe, from Hia- 
watha. 

A real Indian letter. 



C. The composition. 



C. Pupils write their accounts. 
Teacher to give individual or 
class help as needed. 

D. The compositions will oc- 
cupy more than one lesson 
period. When completed, 
they are to be read aloud to 
class. 



LESSON PLAN IN NATURE STUDY FOp THE 
THIRD GRADE 1 K 



I. 
II. 



III. 



Topic: The fish. 
The teacher's aima 

(1) To prepare children for a trip to the aquarium. 

(2) To present the principle of adaptation to environment as 
illustrated in the case of the fish. 

Subject-matter and procedure. 



Subject- Matter 



Procedure 



Goldfish in aquarium in the 
classroom. 



B. (1) Scales. 

Overlap and form cov- 
ering. 

Protect from the water 
and from objects in 
water, etc. 

(2) Shape of fish. 

Like wedge or boat. 
Cuts through water. 

(3) Tail. 

Narrow where it joins 
body. Acts as a rudder. 
Helps in swimming. 

(4) Fins. 

Used for balance and 
swimming. 



A. I have noticed how much 
you enjoy the goldfish which 
Miss W. has sent to visit us. 
Did you ever stop to think 
how it is that fish can live in 
water? Let us find as many 
answers as we can to the 
question. 

(Pupils' aim.) 
How is it possible for fish 
to live in water? 

B. Choose some part of the fish 
and tell how it helps the fish 
to live in the water. 



(If children are slow in 
answering, name the parts 
first and record answers on 
the blackboard. Use black- 
board drawings freely. Mo- 
tions of the hand help to 
make clear the ideas of 
wedge-shaped, rudder, etc.) 



1 Adapted from a lesson plan prepared by Miss Roxana Steele, of the 
Horace Mann School, Teachers College, Columbia University. 



APPENDIX 245 



Those at top and bot- 
tom serve as center- 
board; those at sides, as 
oars. 

(5) Eyes. 

No eyelids. 

Horny covering for 
protection. 

Eyes project. Can see 
in all directions. 

(6) Gills. 

Used to feed and 
breathe. 

Water goes in mouth 
and out gills. 

(7) Air bladder. 

Used to raise and 
lower fish in the water. 



Do you suppose there are 
still more answers that we 
have not thought of? 

Where can we find the 
answers? 

We are going to visit the 
aquarium where you will pro- 
bably find many other an- 
swers. Then we shall have 
another lesson to hear what 
you have discovered. 



LESSON PLAN IN LANGUAGE FOR THE 
FOURTH GRADE 1 



V 



I. Topic: Three Golden Apples ; Hercules and Atlas. 
II. The teacher's aims. 

(1) A knowledge of the portion of the story in which Hercules 
meets Atlas. 

(2) Through acquaintance with this story, to further the appre- 
ciation of good literature. 

(3) The development of a simple outline of the story. 

(4) Oral reproduction of the story for clear, definite statements 
and adequate expression of feeling. 

III. Procedure, and psychological arrangement of the subject- 
matter. 



Subject-Matter 
1 
The journey in the golden 
bowl. (Review.) 



Procedure 
1 

Where did Hercules go after 
leaving Africa? How did he 
make this journey? What shall 
we find out next? 

(Pupils' aim.) 

What happened to Hercules 
after his journey in the golden 
bowl? 



Hercules and Atlas. 

A. Meeting the giant. 

(1) His appearance. 

(2) The storm. 

B. Hercules' errand. 

(1) The giant's offer. 

(2) Hercules takes the bur- 
den. 

C. Atlas' journey. 

(1) Securing the apples. 

(2) His return. 

D. The giant's second offer. 
(1) Hercules' relief. 



(The teacher tells the story, 
observing order of points, and 
by tone and manner making the 
story dramatic, bringing out 
dialogue clearly.) 



1 Prepared in the Practice School of the Rhode Island State Normal 
School. 



APPENDIX 247 

3 3 

I. The need of an outline as What difficulty have we found 

shown by tendency to lose in the story-telling? 

the place. What can we do that will help 

II. The outline as prepared by us? 

the pupils. (Conversation with the chil- 

References: Bulfinch, The dren to develop a plan for or- 

Age of Fable. Gayley, Classic derl y arrangement of the new 

Myths. Hawthorne, The Won- material. Children begin telling 

der-Book. ^e stor y m sections.) 






SHORT LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY FOR 
THE FOURTH GRADE 1 



I. 

II 



III. 



Teacher's aim: To teach names of continents and oceans. 
Pupils' aim : To be able to tell from the map of the world how 
people from the different continents will reach the World's Fair 
in San Francisco in 1915. 

Subject-matter and procedure. 



Procedure 

A. Tell how a little Swedish girl 
can reach San Francisco. 



Subject-Matter 

A. Stockholm, Atlantic Ocean, 
Panama Canal, Pacific 
Ocean. 

B. (New situation involving B. How can a little boy from 
teaching of directions on China come? 

map.) (Lesson to continue on this 

plan. May cover five or six 
periods.) 

1 Prepared by Mrs. M. A. Oliver in the Demonstration School of Teachers 
College, Columbia University. 



AN INDUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT LESSON IN 
ARITHMETIC l 

I. Topic: The multiplication of a decimal by a decimal. 
II. Teacher's aim: To lead children to the generalization that the 
number of decimal places in the product equals the sum of 
those in the multiplicand and multiplier. 
III. Subject-matter and procedure. 



B. 



Subject-Matter 
1 

Data based on Mass. Com- 
mission's Cost of Living, 1910. 
Breadstuffs cost 8.9 % of 
total amount (9 % used); 
sugar, 5£ %; eggs, 3.7 % 
(4 % used); potatoes, 3 %. 

$36 
.09 



5.24 



Procedure 
1 
What percent of the total 
amount spent for food is 
spent for breadstuffs? For 
sugar? Eggs? Potatoes? 



B. Show how we found the 
amount spent for breadstuffs 
when the total amount for 
the month is $36. 

C. How shall we find the daily 
amount based on a daily ex- 
penditure of $1.20? 

(Children try with the ex- 
pected result that they will 
see the need for some guide.) 

(Pupils' aim.) 
To learn how to multiply 
one decimal by another. 



A. (1) .4 X .2 may also 
written T 4 o X tu = 



be A (1) Teacher places on board 
.4 X .2 =? 
Pupils read it. 
Write as fractions. 

(t 4 o><t 2 o=)- what is 
the result of the multi- 
plication? ( T f 7 ) 

Write the answer in 
decimal form. (.08) 

1 Adapted from a plan prepared by Miss Blanche E. Campbell, of the 
Speyer School, Teachers College. 



250 



APPENDIX 



(2) .4 X .2 = .08 
(3) 



(4) 



.4 
.2 



.08 
.3 X .12 
.04 X .11 
.5 X .125 
.11 X .123 



(2) Complete the statement 
.4 X .2 = 

(3) Write it in the usual form 
of multiplying. 

(4) Treat each one of these 
expressions as you did 
.4 X .2 and write the 
answers. 



A. (1) Rule for pointing off in 
multiplication of deci- 
mals. (See Teacher's 
aim.) 



(2) Verification. 

(See Thorndike's Princi- 
ples of Teaching, p. 159. 
Smith's Grammar School 
Arithmetic, p. 107.) 



A. (1) What relation do you see 
between the number of 
places in the product and 
those in the numbers 
which we multiplied to- 
gether? 

(It may be necessary to 
break this up into smaller 
questions.) 
(2) o. By appeal to facts. 
b. By appeal to author- 
ity. 



A. (1) The amount spent for 

breadstuff s is 9% of en- 
tire expenditure for food. 
Find the cost of bread- 
stuffs for one day when 
$1.20 is spent for food. 

(2) Same for butter, 9 %. 

(3) Same for milk, 8 %. 

(4) Same for sugar, b\ %. 

(5) Same for potatoes, 3 %. 

(6) Same for eggs, 4 %. 

(7) Same for meats, 48 %. 

(8) How much of the SI. 20 
is left for all other items 
of food? 

B. Restatement of rule for de- 
termining the number of dec- 
imal places in the product. 



A. Home work. 



B. How will you know how 
many decimal places to point 
off in the various products? 



LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY FOR THE 
SIXTH GRADE 1 

I. Topic : Climate of the Western States. 
II. Teacher's aims. 

(1) To teach the facts about the variations of climate in the 
Western States. 

(2) To trace the causes of these climatic conditions. 

(3) To lead pupils to a keener appreciation of the close ties 
binding widely separated sections of the country. 

III. Topical outline. 

Climate of the Western States. 

A. Climatic conditions in West as inferred from — 

(1) Animal and vegetable products. 

(2) Fame of many health resorts. 

B. Range of temperature in West — 

(1) According to districts. 

(2) According to seasons. 

C. Distribution of rainfall — 

(1) According to districts. 

(2) According to seasons. 

D. Causes of these conditions — 

(1) Latitude. 

(2) Elevation. 

(3) Winds. 

(4) Ocean currents. 

E. Effects upon products and people. 

IV. Procedure, and psychological arrangement of subject-matter. 



Subject-Matter 

1 

A. (1) New England's depend- 
ence upon West for 
o. Raw materials for 
manufacturing. 

Metals — gold, sil- 
ver, copper, mercury, 
etc. 

Animal products — 
wool, bides. 



Procedure 



A. a. In yesterday's lesson, 
what materials did we find 
that New England ob- 
tains from the West for 
use in manufacturing? 



1 Adapted from a lesson plan prepared in the Practice School of the Rhode 
Island State Normal School. 



252 



APPENDIX 



Food products — 

Fruits, fresh — 

oranges, lemons, figs, 
apricots, peaches, cher- 
ries, plums, apples. 

Fruits, dried — 
prunes, raisins, evap- 
orated peaches, apri- 
cots, etc. 

Olives, olive oil, 
wine. 

Grain — wheat, corn, 
oats, barley, alfalfa. 

Meat — beef, pork, 
mutton. 

Other products — 
ostriches, cacti. 
Varying degrees of 
fertility, heat, light, 
and moisture needed. 

Corn, more heat 
than wheat. 

Sheep, less mois- 
ture than cattle, etc. 

Subtropical and 
temperate. 



What other products of 
the West are used by us 
here in New England? 

(Make list on board as 
illustrated, teacher sup- 
plementing, if necessary.) 



c. (Same as b above. Show 
cactus, if possible.) 

d. Why do we not raise these 
products for ourselves? 

(Consider individual 
cases.) 

What conditions are 
necessary for their pro- 
duction? Are these condi- 
tions equally necessary 
for all products? Illus- 
trate. 

Classify products to 
zones. We know that all 
these various products are 
grown in the West, al- 
though many of them can- 
not be raised in New Eng- 
land. To understand how 
this can be so, what must 
we learn about the West- 
ern States? 

(Pupils' aim.) 

Since these products 
are all found in the West 
and the requisites for 
growth are so different, 
what must be true of the 
climate in that section? 



A. (1) Discovery of gold. 



A. (1) What first caused migra- 
tion from the East to the 
Far West? 



APPENDIX 



253 



(2) Search for health. 

a. Resorts visited. 

Colorado, New 

Mexico, Arizona, and 
Southern California 
have many; e.g., Colo- 
rado Springs, Las Ve- 
gas, Hot Springs, Los 
Angeles, Pasadena, 
etc. 

b. Climate favorable. 

Dry, pure air, sun- 
light, equable temper- 
ature. 
References: (Pamphlets is- 
sued by railroads, Arizona 
Health Resorts, California, 
Colorado Outings, etc.) 



B. Winter Summer 

Rocky Mts. 20-30° 60-70° 
Plateau 30-40° 70-80° 

N.W Coast 40-50° 60-70° 
S.W. Coast Over 50° 60° 
Montana 0-10° 60-70° 

Range between seasons 
in Montana 60° 
in S.W. Coast 10° 
in N.W. Coast 20° 



B. 



(2) For what reasons have 
people more recently left 
the East to live in the 
West? 

Name some of the 
most famous health re- 
sorts of the West. 

From what disease are 
most of the health- 
seekers sufferers? 

What climatic condi- 
tions are needed by con- 
sumptives? 

What may we assume 
as to the existence of 
these conditions in the 
West? 

Give information as to 
climatic conditions in 
Southwest to supplement 
inferences. 

(Summarize informa- 
tion about climate gained 
from consideration of 
products and health 
resorts.) 

What is the average winter 
temperature of the Rocky 
Mountain system? Of pla- 
teau region? Of northwest 
coast? Where coldest in 
winter? Warmest? (Other 
similar questions. Same pro- 
cedure with summer tem- 
perature.) 

(Refer to isothermal 
charts, Tarr and McMurry, 
part in, pp. 72, 73; Frye, p. 
75. Give pupils practice in 
reading charts.) 

What is the difference be- 
tween the summer and win- 
ter temperatures on coast, 
plateaus, mountains? Where 
is the climate most equable? 
Most extreme? 

(Summarize knowledge 
gained from charts.) 



254 



APPENDIX 



C. (Refer to pupils' aims.) 



D. (Pupils should ask questions 
about amount of rainfall, 
causes of varying conditions 
found, and the effects of the 
various kinds of climate upon 
productions, occupations, 
etc.) 



References: Carpenter's 
North America. Tarr and Mc- 
Murry's North America. Frye's 
Grammar School Geography. 
Railroad pamphlets. 



C. What question are we trying 
to answer? What have we 
learned about it thus far? 

D. What other questions about 
the climate of the Western 
States should we answer? 



E. Individual assignments 
topics to various pupils. 



of 



LESSON PLAN IN GEOGRAPHY FOR THE 
SIXTH GRADE 1 

I. Topic: Irrigation in the Western States. 
II. Teacher's aims. 

(1) To teach the facts about irrigation in the West. 

(2) To arouse or increase the interest of the class in the devel- 
opment of the West and in its possibilities. 

(3) To further an appreciation of the difficulties with which the 
people in the rainless areas must contend. 

III. Analysis of topic. Pupils must know: — 

(1) Main factors necessary to plant growth. 

(2) Effect of lack of sufficient moisture upon vegetation and 
indirectly upon density of population in the region affected. 

(3) That there are large areas of unproductive land in the 
United States, which if they could be made productive 
would meet the demand for farm lands and would con- 
tribute to the support of the increasing population of the 
United States, as well as of other parts of the world. 

(4) The location and extent of the unproductive regions, the 
reasons for their unproductiveness, and the possible sources 
of water supply. 

(5) The processes of irrigation ; the reclamation service ; results 
of irrigation upon crops and upon density of population in 
the regions where the process has been introduced. 

IV. Procedure, and arrangement of subject-matter to be taught. 

Subject-Matter Procedure 

1 1 

A. Increased cost of fruit and A. How many of you know how 
vegetables in summer and the prices of fruits and vege- 

fall of dry season. Cause — tables during the summer 

small crops due to drought. and fall of this year compare 

with preceding year's prices? 
(Conversation with those 
who know so as to bring out 
the greatly increased prices 
in some years.) What causes 
the high prices usually? 

1 Prepared by the author for the Syllabus of a Course on the Theory and 
Practice of Teaching in Elementary Schools, published by Teachers College, 
Columbia University.. 



256 



APPENDIX 



B. Fertile soil, heat, light, and 
moisture necessary to plant 
growth. 



Lack of moisture causes par- 
tial or total failure of crops. 
In dry regions there is little 
vegetation and consequently 
but few people live in such 
places. 



D. Almost continuous drought 
with consequent dearth of 
vegetation and scanty popu- 
lation the condition in a large 
part of the Western States 
(the Plateau States and the 
Pacific States). One fifth of 
total area of United States is 
arid. (For tables showing 
population, see Tarr and Mc- 
Murry, Geography, Second 
Book, pp. 424-30, or Dodge, 
Adv. Geog., p. 7 of Appendix.) 

E. The arid region is very large. 
(Maps, and tables of areas.) 
The population of the United 
States is increasing. There is 
a demand for farm lands. 
There is a great demand from 
foreign countries for food- 
stuffs. 



B. In order that plants in the 
garden or crops in the fields 
may grow well, what condi- 
tions are necessary? 

C. In this region, which of these 
factors is sometimes lacking? 
Refer to drought of summer 
of 1907. What is the effect 
upon vegetation when but 
little rain falls during the 
entire summer? When year 
after year there is little or no 
rainfall? How about the den- 
sity of population in such a 
country even when tempera- 
ture and soil are favorable to 
plant growth? 

D. In previous lessons we have 
learned that there are exten- 
sive arid regions in our own 
country. In what part of the 
country are they located? 
Name the States included. 
Compare the population of 
the Plateau States with that 
of any other equal number of 
States or with that of each of 
the three largest cities in the 
United States. 



E. Is it of significance to the 
country as a whole that these 
regions remain unproductive? 



F. What problems grow out of 
the situation ? 

(Pupils' aims.) 
a. Can these arid regions be 
made productive? If so, 
how? 
6. What will be the effects 



APPENDIX 



257 



produced in case these 
large tracts of land can be 
brought under cultivation ? 



A. Means for overcoming effects 
of drought. 

a. In limited areas — sprink- 
ling, watering by hand. 

b. In extensive areas — irri- 
gation. 

(Tarr and McMurry , Geog. , 
Second Book, p. 286. 
Dodge, Adv. Geog., p. 166. 
King, Adv. Geog., pp. 141- 
46.) 

B. Sources of water supply. 

a. Rivers. 

b. Mountain streams fed by 
rain, snow, or glaciers. 

c. Artesian wells. 

d. Lakes. 

(T. and M. Geog., Sec. 
Book, p. 297. Dodge's 
Adv. Geog., p. 172. King's 
Adv. Geog., p. 142. Review 
of Reviews, xxxi, 701-04.) 

C. The process of irrigation. 

a. Water storage, reservoirs, 

dams. 
6. Ditches or canals. 

c. Surface irrigation. 

d. Sub-irrigation. 

(See geographies quoted 
under B above.) Pop. Sci. 
Mo., lxvii, 684, 686. 



When the lawns or gardens 
in our part of the country 
grow too dry, how are they 
kept growing? What means 
must be employed to provide 
water in very large areas? 
Are these means used in the 
Plateau and Pacific States? 
(Class consult the refer- 
ences named.) 



B. Where can the water be ob- 
tained for irrigating purposes 
in these dry areas? 

(Conversation. Assign- 
ment to books in use by all 
of the class. Assign article in 
Review of Reviews, xxxi, 
701-04, to a pupil as a 
special topic.) 



C. How can the supply of water 
which falls during the rainy 
season be kept for use during 
the dry season? 

(Assignment of special 
topics relating to particular 
subjects.) 

How is the water in the reser- 
voirs of rivers distributed to 
the fields when it is needed? 

(Illustrate by an outdoor 
lesson ; or if the nature of the 
country is not suited to illus- 
trate the process, use the 
sand table and construct a 
system of irrigation showing 
reservoir, main canals, and 
the distributing ditches. As- 
sign sub-irrigation as a 
special topic.) 



258 



APPENDIX 



D. The reclamation service. 

a. The nature of its work. 

b. The territory affected. 

(See The World's Work, 
December, 1907.) 

E. How the Government gets 
its money back. 

a. Sale of land in tracts not 
exceeding 160 acres to an 
individual. 

b. Payment in ten equal 
annual installments. 
(The CosraopoZttan, xxxvn, 
715-22. The World's Work, 
December, 1907.) 

F. The effects of irrigation. 

a. Upon agriculture. 

(See geographies quoted 
above ; also The Cosmopoli- 
tan, xxxvn, 718-22. The 
World's Work, December, 
1907.) 

b. Upon secondary indus- 
tries. 

c. Upon population in the 
areas irrigated. 

(King's Adv. Geog., pp. 
152-54 ; also other geogra- 
phies quoted above. The 
World's Work, December, 
1907.) 



D. How does the United States 
Government aid in reclaim- 
ing the waste lands of the 
West? 



E. What disposition does the 
Government make of the 
reclaimed lands? 



F. Would it pay a man to buy 
a forty-acre tract in the irri- 
gated region? What crops 
could he produce? Value of 
crops? (Estimated.) Where 
there are prosperous farming 
communities, what other in- 
dustries are possible? Are 
they found in the irrigated 
districts? With agriculture, 
fruit growing, and other in- 
dustries made possible and 
profitable, what effect is pro- 
duced upon immigration to 
the Western States? 

What problems did we set 
out to solve in these lessons 
on irrigation? What is the 
answer to each? 



(See II above.) 



Topic for class as a whole. 

a. Value of forests to sys- 
tems of irrigation. 
Our relations to the irri- 
gated regions. 
Advisability of introduc- 
ing irrigation in the East- 
ern States. 
Irrigation in Egypt. 
Irrigation in India. 



b. 






APPENDIX 259 

B. Individual assignments. 

a. Economy of water in 
irrigating. 

b. Fruit growing on irrigated 
land. 

c. Advantages and disad- 
vantages of farming in the 
East and in the West. 

d. Relative value to a State 
of gold mining and farm- 
ing. 

e. Relation of irrigation in 
the West to the people of 
Europe. 

/. To the people in the 
Eastern States. 



FIRST LESSON OF A SERIES IN ORAL 
READING » 

I. Teacher's aims. / 

(1) To set up a real reason in the child's mind for reading aloud. 

(2) To evolve in simple terms the standards of good reading so 
that the child may have definite ends to attain in his 
studying. 

II. Pupils' aim: 

To evolve a method of choosing the four best readers in the class. 
III. Situation : 

The teacher has been reading a number of stories to the children 
in which the interest has been entirely in the story. Any in- 
struction in reading, as such, has been taken in unconsciously 
by the child. 

IV. Subject-matter and procedure. 

Subject-Matter Procedure 

Introduction. "I have been reading to you 

for quite a long time. It is not 
fair for me to do all the reading, 
for every one of you will at some 
time or other have to read aloud 
to some one else, so I am going 
to ask you to read our next story 
— Dickens's The Cricket on the 
Hearth. Inasmuch as we have 
but five copies available, it will 
be necessary to choose five pu- 
pils each day who will be respon- 
sible for reading the next day. 

"While you are reading I 
want to carry on an experiment. 
I am going to try to determine 
who are the four best readers in 
the class. I want you to do the 
same, and when we have finished 
we '11 compare and see how nearly 
we agree." 

The need for bases of choice. "Grace, how will you make 

your choice?" 

"Charles, would you follow 
the same method?" 

1 Prepared and taught by Edwin A. Lee of the Speyer School. 



APPENDIX 



261 



Standards of Reading. 

Ability to express thought 
author intended. 
"Enunciation. 

Inflection and expression. 

Quality of voice. 

Poise. 
Name of marker. 



(From the answers gained 
from these and other children it 
is possible that the next step 
will follow logically.) 

"It really resolves itself into 
this question, does n't it, — What 
are the marks of a good reader? 

' ' If we can arrive at a set of 
standards of good reading, we 
shall have a real basis for 
choosing." 

" Harry, what is one mark of a 
good reader?" 

From this point the lesson 
depends on what one gets from 
the children. They will, without 
doubt, give numbers one and 
two. Number three can be gained 
by reading to them in a mon- 
otone, and asking them why 
they dislike it. Number four 
they will give if the teacher reads 
in an unpleasant tone. 

Poise is probably the most 
difficult mark to get because 
that phase has not been brought 
to their conscious attention. 
Each child will, however, have 
an appreciation of its import- 
ance once he understands its 
meaning. 

Here again the procedure 
depends on the children. The 
thing is not to get definite marks 
but the desire to mark. Therefore 
the marking may be on a basis of 
1—2—3—4—5, or A— B— C— 
D — E,or Excellent — Good — Fair 
— Unsatisfactory — Poor. If the 
child knows that his comrades are 
going to mark him Excellent or 
Poor on each of the five stand- 
ards, the chances are that he will 
strive to make the mark high. 

Note: The lesson following might very well be one on how to study the 
reading lesson in the light of the standards set up. 



How to use these standards. 



PLANS FOR LESSON ASSIGNMENTS 1 

I. Subject: Washington's Administration. 

II. Topics to be studied : Methods of raising money to carry on the 
new government ; how they worked ; how they were received by 
the people; the Whiskey Rebellion. 
III. Preparation: What decision had Congress reached as to 
whether all the debts should be paid or not? Did the Govern- 
ment have any money then? What does it need money for? 
How does it raise money to-day? Do you suppose Congress 
tried any of these ways in 1789? To-morrow we shall find out 

(1) What the tariff is. 

(2) What an excise tax is. 

(3) To what extent these means of raising money were em- 
ployed. 

(4) How the people liked these plans. 

(5) Whether any serious difficulty was met in enforcing them. 

I. Subject: Washington's Administration. 

II. Topics to be studied: The National Bank; the mint; the system 
of coinage. 
III. Preparation: How do you suppose Congress was to collect the 
revenue? What kind of money did the people have at that 
time? What were the difficulties with such a system? Do you 
know how they were overcome? 

For to-morrow, then, look up the answers to these questions 
or think them out for yourselves : — 

(1) What did Hamilton propose as a means to collect the 
revenue? 

(2) What were the arguments for and against his plan? 
Which side would you take? 

(3) What plan was finally adopted? 

(4) How did we come to have our present system of money? 

I. Subject: The War of 1812. 

II. Purpose: A summing up of the lessons on the War of 1812, with 

especial emphasis on its justifiableness as considered from its 

treaty results. 

III. Preparation: When did the Hartford Convention meet? How 

were the difficulties arising from it stopped? Do you know 

1 These assignment plans belong to a series prepared by Miss Lila E. Ben- 
ton, of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colorado. A few modifications have 
been made because they have been taken from their setting and presented 
separately. 



APPENDIX 263 

what we gained by this treaty of peace? What did we want to 
gain? What ought we to find out about this treaty? 
Questions for study: — 

(1) What were the provisions of the treaty? 

(2) What did we gain by the War of 1812? 

(3) From the results, do you think the war was justifiable? 
Think out as many arguments for each side as you can. 



OUTLINE 

I. SUBJECT-MATTER: ITS NATURE, 
DEVELOPMENT, AND PURPOSES 

1. Need of understanding what subject-matter is ... 1 

2. Where subject-matter first exists 1 

3. Many forms of thought and action 3 

4. Need of transmitting modes of activity 3 

5. What subject-matter was originally 4 

6. The integral nature of subject-matter 5 

7. Effect of books upon subject-matter 5 

8. Subject-matter modifiable 5 

9. The development of new subject-matter 7 

10. The subject-matter of the schools and changing social 
conditions 8 

11. Why the intrinsic function of subject-matter is not more 
prominent in the schools 10 

12. The pleasure element in subject-matter 13 

Summary 14 

Exercises 14 

II. WHERE EDUCATION MUST BEGIN 

1. Ideas more or less complete and more or less organized . . 16 

2. Attitudes and feelings 17 

3. Native endowment of instincts and capacities ... 18 

4. Acquired modes of acting; habits fixed or in the process of 

formation 20 

Summary 21 

Exercises 21 

III. WHAT SCHOOL EDUCATION SHOULD 
ACCOMPLISH 

1. Education should remake and extend experience ... 22 

2. Education should aim toward social content or value of 
experience 24 

3. Education should increase the control of the learner over 

the values which make up experience 25 

Summary 26 

Exercises 27 



266 OUTLINE 



IV. MEANS WHICH AID IN EDUCATION 

1. Types of class procedure 28 

a. The telling exercise or the lecture method .... 28 

b. The object lesson 29 

c. The study of ideas in relation: inductive and deductive 
lessons 29 

d. The exercise to arouse appreciation 30 

e. The formation of habits and the increase of skill . .31 

/. Training pupils to study 31 

g. The assignment lesson 32 

h. The recitation lesson 32 

i. The review lesson 33 

j. The socializing phases of school work 34 

2. These exercises not mutally exclusive 34 

3. Types of teaching not to be regarded as special methods . 34 

Summary 36 

Exercises 36 



V. EXERCISES WHICH AIM AT THE DISCOVERY 
OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. THE INDUCTIVE 

LESSON 

1. The purpose of the inductive lesson 38 

2. The formal steps involved in inductive teaching ... 41 

a. The preparation 42 

(1) Bringing the problem or motive to consciousness . 42 

(2) Reproducing or recalling ideas needed for the under- 
standing of the new lesson 43 

b. The presentation 44 

(1) Forms of presentation 44 

(2) Necessity of abundant material 45 

(3) Necessity of variety 45 

(4) Necessity of making essential features prominent . 46 

c. The comparison 47 

(1) Purpose of this step 47 

(2) Aids to comparison 48 

(3) The comparison to be made by the class ... 48 

d. The generalization 49 

(1) Forms of generalized knowledge 49 

(2) The framing of the generalization 50 

(3) Verification 50 

3. Advantages of this type of lesson 51 

4. Limitations of the method 52 

Summary 53 

Exercises 54 



OUTLINE 267 

VI. LESSONS IN WHICH GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 
IS EMPLOYED. THE DEDUCTIVE LESSON 

1. What is meant by deduction 55 

2. Deduction in its relation to the inductive process . . 56 

3. Steps or stages in a deductive exercise 58 

a. The problem 58 

b. The study of details and principles 58 

c. The hypothesis or inference 59 

d. Verification of hypothesis finally selected .... 61 

4. Use of textbooks in deductions 64 

5. Suggestions in regard to the use of the deductive process . 65 

Summary 67 

Exercises 69 

VII. THE STUDY OF OBJECTS AND ACTIVITIES 

1. The nature of the object lesson 70 

2. The relation of the object lesson to the inductive lesson . 71 

3. The need of the step of preparation in the object lesson . 72 

4. The teaching of the new lesson 73 

a. Observation to be limited to facts bearing on the aim . 73 

b. Trying to cover too many details in one lesson to be 
avoided 73 

_< c. All pupils to come in contact with the new facts ... 74 

d. Central or important facts which all should learn. Indi- 
vidual assignments 74 

e. Class to be held responsible for results .... 74 

5. Planning the object lesson 75 

6. Providing illustrative material 75 

Summary 78 

Exercises 78 

VIII. THE ASSIGNMENT OF LESSONS 

1. The purpose of the assignment 80 

2. Kinds of lessons which may involve an assignment . . 80 

3. When the assignment should be made 81 

4. What it should do specifically for the class in regard to 
subject-matter 82 

5. How the assignment should help with methods of study . 85 

6. Need of indicating sources of data in the assignment . . 86 

7. Class and individual assignments 87 

8. Page assignments 88 

9. The assignment book and clear assignments .... 88 
10. Effect of proper assignment upon the interest and effort of 

pupils 89 

Summary 91 

Exercises 91 



268 OUTLINE 



IX. THE RECITATION EXERCISE 

1. What the recitation is 93 

2. What material may constitute its subject-matter . . 93 

3. Forms of the recitation lesson 94 

a. Verbatim reproduction of matter read .... 94 

b. Unorganized account of reading, observation, experi- 
ments or other investigation 95 

c. Topical recitation 96 

d. Question-and-answer recitation. Classes of Questions . 97 

4. The amplification and correction of data collected by the 
pupils. New questions raised. Value of books determined 101 

5. How the notebooks may be made helpful .... 104 
,6. Learning to follow the recitations in class .... 105 

Summary 106 

Exercises 107 



X. THE AROUSAL AND GUIDANCE OF 
APPRECIATION 

1. The reason for this type of lesson 109 

2. The kinds of appreciation to be considered . . . .110 

a. Social 110 

&. ^Esthetic Ill 

'3. In what worth may consist Ill 

4. Some suggestions as to how appreciation may be aroused or 
influenced 115 

5. General suggestions for the teacher 125 

Summary 127 

Exercises 128 



XL SOCIALIZING EXERCISES 

1. What the socializing exercises are intended to accomplish . 130 

2. Forms these exercises may take 131 

o. Acquisition of knowledge of social conditions, needs, 

and activities 131 

b. School activities involving cooperation or consideration 

of the welfare of others 134 

c. Organization of activities which function in the school 
neighborhood or community 140 

3. Helps which the teacher may employ in developing social 

insight, attitudes and habits 141 

a. Social instincts of pupils 141 

b. Subject-matter 142 

c. Organization of school. Community help .... 146 

d. Teacher's own spirit and attitude 146 



OUTLINE 269 

e. Miscellaneous helps 147 

Summary 148 

Exercises 149 

XII. THE FORMATION OF HABITS AND THE 
INCREASE OF SKILL 

1. Reason for such exercises 150 

2. The field included in habit-forming exercises . . . 152 

3. Procedure in habit-formation 154 

4. The laws of habit-formation 161 

5. The necessity of attention 164 

6. The necessity of accuracy 166 

7. The necessity of increasing facility and rapidity . . .168 

8. ^Discontinuing drill 169 

9. Memorizing a habit-forming exercise 170 

10. Learning facts which belong in a series 172 

11. The step of application as habit-formation .... 173 

12. Teaching pupils to direct the formation of their own habits . 174 

Summary 175 

Exercises 176 

XIII. SCHOOL EXERCISES WHICH INVOLVE 
REVIEW 

1. What is meant by review 178 

2. When reviews are helpful or necessary 180 

3. Suggestions for conducting review exercises .... 182 

a. Review of old knowledge to form basis for solution of 
new problem 182 

6. Review to discover whether all of the material concerned 

with a problem has been included and mastered . .183 

c. Review in application and drill 185 

4. Training pupils into right ideas and conscious method of 
review 186 

5. General suggestions 187 

- a. The teacher's preparation for a review exercise . . . 187 

b. The time given to review 188 

c. Profiting from reviews as tests 189 

Summary 190 

Exercises 191 

XIV. TRAINING PUPILS TO STUDY 

1. The nature of study 192 

2. What may be done during a study period .... 196 

3. Training pupils for independent study 199 

a. Training to find the aim or problem 199 

b. Training to judge of hypotheses 202 



270 OUTLINE 

c. Collecting and valuing data 204 

d. Teaching to organize material 205 

e. Deferring conclusions and forming independent judg- 
ments 207 

/. Testing conclusions 209 

g. Thoughtful memorizing 211 

4. Suggestions to the teacher 214 

5. Testing classes and teachers 216 

Exercises 218 

XV. MAKING LESSON PLANS 

1. Why a lesson plan is necessary , 220 

2. What a plan should include 221 

a. Subject-matter 221 

(1) The specific purposes to be accomplished through 
the subject-matter included in the plan . . . 222 

(2) The subject-matter as a whole or in outline perspec- • 
tive 224 

b. Class procedure 224 

(1) The development of the pupils' aim .... 225 

(2) The method of treating the subject-matter . . 227 

(3) The provision for reviews, summaries, drills, and 
assignments 229 

(4) References and illustrative material to be em- 
ployed 229 

(5) The verification and application 230 

3. Teaching from the plan 231 

4. Some considerations in plan-making 232 

a. Impossibility of complete plans in all subjects . . 232 

b. Learning to shorten the process of plan-making . . 233 

c. Complete plans necessary at times 234 

d. Making plans cannot safely be discontinued . . . 234 
Summary 235 

APPENDIX 



Suggestions for lesson plans 237 

Lesson plan in reading for the first grade 239 

Lesson plan in composition for the second grade . . . .241 
Lesson plan in composition for the third grade .... 242 
Lesson plan in nature study for the third grade .... 244 
Lesson plan in language for the fourth grade .... 246 

Short lesson plan in geography for the fourth grade . . . 248 
An inductive development lesson in arithmetic .... 249 
Lesson plan in geography for the sixth grade .... 251 
Lesson plan in geography for the sixth grade .... 255 

First lesson of a series in oral reading 260 

Plans for lesson assignments 262 



INDEX 



Accomplishments, 13. 

Accuracy, necessity of, in forma- 
tion of habit, 166-68. 

Acquired modes of acting, 20. 

Action, many forms of, 3; needs 
of transmitting modes of, 3, 4; 
forms of, change, 7, 8; acquired 
ny>des of, 20; study of, 29, 70- 
78. 

Activity. See Action. 

^Esthetic appreciation, 111. 

Agriculture, schools of, 10. 

Aim, need of a, 182, 193; training 
to find, 199-202; the teacher's, 
222-24; development of the 
pupil's, 221, 225-27. 

Amplification and correction of 
data collected by pupils, 101- 
04. 

Application, the, step in inductive 
process, 42, 56-58, 71; as habit- 
formation, 173; review in, 185, 
186; in lesson plans, 221, 230, 
231. 

Appreciation, exercise in, a type 
of lesson, 30, 31 ; the reason for 
this type, 109, 110; social, 110, 
111; aesthetic, 111; in what 
worth as object of, may con- 
sist, 111-15; suggestions as to 
how it may be aroused or 
influenced, 115-25; basis of, 
founded on knowledge, 125; 
over-analysis fatal to, 125, 126; 
teacher must have, 126; 
sometimes slow in developing 
and not equally distributed, 
126, 127; should be turned into 
action, 127; summary of dis- 
cussion of, 127, 128. 

Approval, forms of, of teacher or 
parent, 158. 



Arithmetic, methods and sub- 
jects of, 8, 9, 11; inductive 
method possible in teaching 
of, 40; example of teaching pro- 
cess in, 61 ; socializing content 
of, 143-46 ;definiteness of thing 
required needed in, 200, 201. 

Art, group work in, 137. 

Assignment lesson, the, 32. 

Assignment of lessons, the pur- 
pose of, 80; kinds of lessons 
which may involve, 80, 81; 
when it should be made, 81, 82; 
what it should do specifically 
for the class in regard to sub- 
ject-matter, 82-85; how it 
should help with methods of 
study, 85, 86; need of indicating 
sources of data in, 86, 87 ; class 
and individual, 87; page, 88; 
clear, 88, 89; books for, 88, 89; 
effect of proper, upon interest 
and effort of pupils, 89, 90; 
summary of discussion of, 91; 
provision for, in lesson plans, 
221, 229. 

Athletic sports, 138. 

Attention, necessity of, in forma- 
tion of habit, 164-66. 

Attitudes and feelings, 17, 18. 

Automatism, 152. 

Books, subject-matter frequently 
associated with contents of, 1 ; 
subject-matter first exists out- 
side of, 1; on primitive life, 2; 
effect of, upon subject-matter, 
5; some material in, not fitted 
to social conditions, 8-10; use 
of, in education, 28, 29; use 
of, in deduction, 64; teaching 
geometry without, 84; assign- 



272 



INDEX 



merit, 88, 89; value of, deter- 
mined, 101-04. 

Bryant, W. C, "The New and 
the Old," study of, 118, 119; 
"Lines to a Waterfowl," 119, 
120. 

Bulletin boards, a help in social- 
izing school work, 1 47. 

Business, forms and methods 
used by, 8, 9. 

Calculation, methods of, 9. 

Capacities and instincts, 18, 19. 

Charters, Professor, his defini- 
tion of subject-matter, 1 12. 

Civics, group work in, 136, 142, 
143. 

Civil War, study in, 121, 122. 

Class and individual assignments, 
87. 

Class officers, 138. 

Class procedure, types of, 28-37; 
in lesson plans, 221, 224-31. 

Classes, testing, 216-18. 

Classical languages, the, 11, 12, 
146. 

Clubs, school, 140, 141. 

Community help, 134-41, 146. 

Comparison, the, step in induc- 
tive process, 42, 47-49, 71. 

Competition, 156-58, 168. 

Conclusions, deferring of, 194, 
195, 207-09; verifying and ap- 
plying, 195-97; testing, 209- 
11. 

Cooking, group work in, 137; 
credit given for home work in, 
146. 

Cooperation in school work, 134- 
40. 

Correlation of ideas, 180, 181, 
188. 

"Daisies," the memorizing of, 
171. 

Data, sources of, need of indi- 
cating, in the assignment, 86, 
87; amplification and correc- 
tion of, 101-04; collecting, 194, 



196, 197, 204, 205; valuing, 
204, 205. - 

Debating, group work in, 137. 

Deduction, its meaning, 55, 56; 
as related to induction, 56-58; 
steps or stages in, 58-63; use 
of textbooks in, 64; Professor 
Dewey quoted on use of, 66, 
67; suggestions in regard to 
use of, 65-67; summary of dis- 
cussion of, 67, 68. 

Deductive lesson, type of class 
procedure, 29, 30. 

Details, study of, in deductive 
exercise, 58, 59; too much study 
of, 73. 

Dewey, Professor, quoted on use 
of deduction, 66, 67. 

Discipline, doctrine of, 11; valid- 
ity of doctrine of, 130. 

Discussion of pupils' reports, 101. 

Dramatization, group work in, 
137. 

Drill, 31, 152-60, 163-69, 178; 
discontinuing, 169, 171-75; 
review in, 185, 186; provision 
for, in lesson plans, 221, 229. 

Education, where it must begin 
and equipment on which it 
must build, 16-21; the remak- 
ing of experience the aim of, 
22, 23; should aim toward social 
content or value of experience, 
24, 25; should increase control 
over values, 25, 26; types of 
class procedure in, 28-37; deals 
with more than gaining of 
ideas and logical thinking, 109. 

Effort, effect of proper assign- 
ment upon, 89, 90. 

Emotional states, are communi- 
cable, 126; should be directed 
to some activity, 1 27. 

End. See Aim. 

English. See Language, Litera- 
ture, Grammar. 

Errors, sources of, 102-04. 

Excursions, 74. 



INDEX 



273 



Exercise, the telling, 28, 29; in- 
ductive, 29, 30, 38, 54; deduc- 
tive, 29, 30, 55-69; object, 29, 
70-79; to arouse appreciation, 
30, 31, 109-29; study, 31, 32; 
for formation of habits and 
increase of skill, 31, 150-77; 
drill, 31, 152-60, 163-75; as- 
signment, 32, 80-92; recita- 
tion, 32, 33, 93-108; review, 
33, 178-91; socializing, 34, 
130-49. 

Experience, what it is, 16-20, 22; 
education a remaking and ex- 
tending of, 22, 23; to be remade 
in the direction of more so- 
cialized content, 24, 25; to be 
remade through increased in- 
dividual control over values, 
25, 26. 

Feelings and attitudes, 17, 18. 
Five Formal Steps, the, 52. 
Foreign languages, teaching of, 

85; socializing of, 146. 
Formal steps of instruction, 42- 

51. 
Functions of subject-matter, 10- 

14. 

Games, 138. 

Gardening, credit given for home 
work in, 146. 

General knowledge, exercises 
which aim at the discovery of, 
38-54; lessons in which it is 
employed, 55-69. 

Generalization, the, step in in- 
ductive process, 42, 49-51, 71 . 

Geography, sometimes taught 
as form of discipline, 11; the 
teaching of, built on experi- 
ence, 23; inductive method pos- 
sible in teaching of, 41; use of 
object lesson in teaching of, 
70, 73; planning in object of, 
75; socialized, 132, 133; group 
work in, 136; training for 
study in, 200. 



Geometry, taught without text- 
books, 84. 

George Junior Republic, 140. 

Grammar, sometimes taught as 
form of discipline, 11; induc- 
tive method possible in teach- 
ing of, 40; use of deduction in 
teaching of, 65. 

Group work, 135-37. 

Gymnasia, 12. 

Habits, acquired modes of be- 
havior, 20; fixed or in the proc- 
ess of formation, 20; exercise 
for formation of, a type of 
teaching, 31; reason for exer- 
cise for formation of, 150-52; 
the field included in exercises 
for formation of, 152-54; pro- 
cedure in formation of, 154-60; 
laws of formation of, 161-64; 
necessity of attention in forma- 
tion of, 164-66; necessity of ac- 
curacy in formation of, 166-68; 
necessity of increasing facility 
and rapidity in, 168, 169; 
memorizing an exercise for 
formation of, 170-73; the step 
of application in formation of, 
173; teaching pupils to direct 
the formation of their own, 174, 
175; summary of discussion of, 
175, 176. 

History, sometimes taught as 
form of discipline, 11; induc- 
tive method possible in teach- 
ing of, 41; sample of study in, 
121, 122; group work in, 136; 
training for study in, 200. 

Home work, 146, 197, 198. 

Hypotheses, verification of, 61- 
63, 209-11; formulating, 194, 
196; training to judge of, 202- 
04. 

Hypothesis, the, in deductive ex- 
ercise, 59-61; verification of- 
61-63. 

[deas, constantly change, 7, 8; 



274 



INDEX 



more or less complete and 
more or less organized, 16, 17; 
states of feeling associated with, 
17, 18; the study of, in rela- 
tion, 29, 30; correlation of, 180, 
181, 188. 

Illustrative material, for nature 
study, 75-77; to be employed 
in lesson plans, 221, 229. 

Independence of judgment, 207- 
09,211. 

Individual and class assignments, 
87. 

Individual work necessary for 
pupil, 148. 

Induction, as related to deduc- 
tion, 56-58. 

Inductive lesson, one type of class 
procedure, 29, 30; the purpose 
of, 38-41; formal steps in- 
volved in, 41-51; advantages 
of, 51, 52; limitations of, 52, 
53; summary of discussion of, 
53; relation of object lesson to, 
71. 

Inductive-deductive lesson, 56. 

Inference, the, in deductive exer- 
cise, 59-61. 

Instincts, what is meant by, 18; 
classification of, 19; not all 
present at birth, 19; educa- 
tion must build on, 19; a part 
of experience, 22; of pupils, 
social, 141. 

Instruction, subject-matter of. 
See Subject-matter. 

Interest, effect of proper assign- 
ment upon, 89, 90. 

Inventions, 2, 3. 

James, William, his laws of habit- 
formation, 161, 162. 

Jones, Dr. Thomas J., quoted on 
study of civics in the schools, 
142, 143. 

Knowledge, socialized and un- 
socialized, 24, 25 ; general, exer- 
cises which aim at the discov- 



ery of, 38-54; general, lessons 
in which it is employed, 55-69. 

Language, inductive method pos- 
sible in teaching of, 40, 41. 

Latin, 12. See Classical languages. 

Lecture method, the, 28, 29. 

Lesson, the assignment of, 80-92. 
See Exercise. 

Lesson plans, making, 220-36; 
why necessary, 220, 221; what 
they should include, 221-31; 
teaching from, 231, 232; can- 
not be complete in all subjects, 
232; learning to shorten the 
process of making, 233, 234; 
complete, necessary at times, 
234; not safe to discontinue 
process of making, 234, 235; 
summary of discussion of, 235, 
236. 

Literature, study of samples of, 
118-21; group work in, 137; 
training for study in, 200. 

Little Mothers' Clubs, 141. 

Manual training, group work in, 
137; credit given for home work 
in, 146. 

Material, illustrative, for nature 
study, 75-77; of recitation, 93, 
94; collecting and valuing, 204, 
205; teaching to organize, 205- 
07; illustrative, to be employed 
in lesson plans, 221, 229. See 
Data. 

Mathematics, forms and meth- 
ods of, 8, 9, 11; the teaching 
of, built on experience, 23; use 
of induction in teaching of, 40; 
use of deduction in teaching 
of, G5. See Arithmetic, Geome- 
try. 

Memorizing. 94, 95, 150, 170-73, 
195, 197, 231; thoughtful, 211- 
14. 

Mental training, 11, 12. 

Millet, "The Gleaners," study 
of, 115-17. 



INDEX 



975 



Monitors, 139. 

Motives to drill, need of, 154; 
sources of, 155-59. 

Moving pictures, a help in so- 
cializing school work, 147. 

Music, as taught in schools, 9; 
education in appreciation of, 
123-25; group work in, 137. 

Nature study, inductive method 
possible in, 40, 72; illustrative 
material to be provided for, 
75-77; to be arranged with re- 
ference to favorable seasons, 
77; reflection necessary in 
p'roblems of, 201. 

Necessity, a motive to drill, 159. 

Need, feeling of, necessary, 182, 
183, 192, 193. 

Newspapers, a help in socializing 
school work, 147. 

Notebooks, 88, 89, 104, 105. 

Object lesson, one type of class 
procedure, 29; nature of, 70, 
71; relation of, to the inductive 
lesson, 71; need of the step of 
preparation in, 72, 73; the 
teaching of, 73-75; the plan- 
ning of, 75; the providing of 
illustrative material for, 75-77 ; 
summary of discussion of, 78. 

Organization, of school and school- 
neighborhood activities, 134- 
41, 146; of material, teaching 
for, 205 r 07. 

Organizations, school, 140, 141. 

Outlines, topical, 85, 86, 96, 97, 
206, 212; in lesson plans, 221, 
224, 225. m 

Over-analysis fatal to apprecia- 
tion, 125, 126. 

Page assignments, 88. 
Parents' associations, 141. 
Periodicals, a help in socializing 

school work, 147. 
Perspective, outlines for, 221, 

224, 225. 



Picture, study of a, 1 15-17. 

Pictures, a help in socializing 
school work, 147. 

Plans, lesson. See Lesson plans. 

Plays, 138. 

Pleasure, element of, in subject- 
matter, 13, 14. 

Poem, study of a, 118, 119. 

Poetry, memorizing, 170-72. 

"Point of contact," 225. 

Power, cultivation of, 130. 

Prejudices, 18, 22. 

Preparation, the, step of induc- 
tive process, 42-44, 71-73. 

Preparatory value of studies, 12, 
13. 

Presentation, the, step of induc- 
tive process, 42, 44-47, 71, 73- 
75. 

Principles, study of, in deductive 
exercise, 58, 59. 

Problem, the, in deduction, 58; 
realizing a, 192, 193, 196, 197; 
training to find, 199-202. 

Punctuation, marks of, as taught 
in schools and as used by busi- 
ness people, 8. 

Question-and-answer recitation, 

97-101. 
Questions, classes of, 97-101; to 

be brought by pupils, 101; 

new, raised in class, 101-04; 

place of, in lesson plans, 227, 

228. 

Recitation, what it is, 93; what 
material may constitute its 
subject-matter, 93, 94; rote, 
94, 95; topical, 96, 97; ques- 
tion-and-answer, 97-1 01 ; learn- 
ing to follow, in class, 105, 106; 
summary of discussion of, 
106. 

Recitation lesson, a type of class 
procedure, 32, 33; discussion 
of, 93-106; forms of, 94-101. 

Record, pride in, a motive to 
drill, 159. 



276 



INDEX 



References, to be employed in 
lesson plans, 221, 229. 

Relation, the study of ideas in, 
29, 30. See Deduction, Induc- 
tion. 

Repetition, law of, 162-64; value 
of, 185; in memorizing, 212, 
213. 

Reports of pupils, discussion of, 
101. 

Review, what is meant by, 178- 
80; when helpful and necessary, 
180-82; suggestions for con- 
ducting, 182-86; of old knowl- 
edge to form basis for solution 
of new problem, 182, 183; to 
discover whether all of the ma- 
terial concerned with a prob- 
lem has been included and 
mastered, 183-85; in applica- 
tion and drill, 185, 186; training 
into conscious method of, 186, 
187; the teachers preparation 
for, 187, 188; the time given 
to, 188, 189; profiting from, 
as test, 189, 190; summary of 
discussion of, 190, 191; pro- 
vision for, in lesson plans, 221 , 
229. 

Review lesson, 33, 178-91. 

Rote recitations, 94, 95, 213. 

Rowe, Dr. S. H., on habit, 20, 
152. 

School, organization of, 134-41, 
146. 

School housekeeping, 137, 138. 

School organizations, 140, 141. 

Schools, subject-matter of the, 
and changing social conditions, 
8-10; technical, 10; of agricul- 
ture, 10; why intrinsic func- 
tion of subject-matter is not 
made more prominent in, 10- 
13; isolation of, 10. 

Science, group work in, 137. 

Self-competition, 157, 158, 168. 

Series, learning facts in a, 172, 
173. 



Sewing, group work in, 137; 
credit given for home work in, 
146. 

"Silas Marner," study of, 112, 
113. 

Skill, exercise for the increase of, 
a type of teaching, 31; reason 
for exercise for increase of, 150- 
52; Thorndike quoted on, 150, 
151; necessity of attention in 
increase of, 164-66; necessity 
of accuracy in increase of, 166- 
68; necessity of increasing 
facility and rapidity in, 168, 
169. See Habits. 

Social appreciation, 110, 111. 

Social conditions, subject-mat- 
ter of the schools and, 8-10. 

Social instincts of pupils, 141. 

Social Service League, 140. 

Socialized knowledge, 24, 25, 34, 
130-34, 142-46. 

Socializing lesson, type of class 
procedure, 34; what it at- 
tempts to accomplish, 130, 131 ; 
forms of, 131-41; helps for 
teacher in conducting, 141- 
48; summary of discussion of, 
148, 149. 

Socializing phases of school work, 
34, 130. See Socializing lesson. 

Societies, school, 140, 141. 

Sources of data, need of indicat- 
ing, in the assignment, 86, 87; 
errors of pupils due to, 101- 
04; use of, 204, 205. 

Spelling, inductive method pos- 
sible in teaching of, 40; drill 
needful for, 156-58. 

Stereopticon, a help in socializing 
school work, 147. 

Stereoscope, a help in socializing 
school work, 147. 

Study, the training in methods 
of, 31, 32; how the assignment 
should help with methods of, 
85, 86; home, 146, 197, 198; 
training pupils to, 192-219; the 
nature of, 192-96; what may 



INDEX 



277 



be done during period of, 196- 
99; training pupils for inde- 
pendent, 199-214; summary 
of discussion of, 218, 219. 

Subject-matter, need of under- 
standing what it is, 1; where 
it first exists, 1-3; what it was 
originally, 4; the integral na- 
ture of, 5 ; effect of books upon, 
5; is modifiable, 5-7; the devel- 
opment of new, 7, 8; of the 
schools, and changing social 
conditions, 8-10; why intrinsic 
function of, is not made more 
prominent in schools, 10-13; 
functions of, 10-14; as means 
of mental training, 11; as pre- 
paratory in function, 12; the 
pleasure element in, 13, 14; 
summary of discussion of, 14; 
what the assignment should do 
specifically for the class in re- 
gard to, 82-85; of recitation, 
material which may constitute, 
93, 94; Prof. Charters's defini- 
tion of, 11 2; socializing of, 131- 
34, 142-46; included in the les- 
son plan, purposes to be accom- 
plished through, 221-24; as a 
whole or in outline perspec- 
tive, 221, 224. 225; method of 
treating the, .1, 227, 228. 

Summaries, use of, 221, 229. 

Synopses, 96. 

Teacher, sj ' t and attitude of, 
146, 147; preparation of, for 
review exercise, 187, 188; test- 
ing, 216-18; his task highly 



complicated, 220; need of las 
making lesson plans, 220, 221; 
his aims, 222-24. 

Team work, 138. 

Technical schools, 10. 

Telling exercise, the, 28, 29. 

Testing conclusions, 209-11. 

Tests, profiting from reviews as, 
189, 190; of classes and teachers, 
216-18. 

Textbooks, use of, in deduction, 
64; studying geometry with- 
out, 84. 

Theories. See Hypotheses. 

Thorndike, E. L., quoted on 
skill, 150, 151; on distribution 
of drills, 169; on training to 
judge of hypotheses, 204. 

Thought, many forms of, 3; need 
of transmitting products of, 3, 
4; forms of, change, 7, 8. 

Thoughtful memorizing, 211- 
14. 

Topical outlines, 85, 86, 206, 212, 
221, 224, 225. 

Topical recitation, 96, 97. 

Training, into right ideas and 
conscious method of review, 
186, 187; to study, 192-219. 

Types of class procedure, 28-37. 

Unorganized account of reading, 
95. 

Verbatim reproduction of mat- 
ter read, 94, 95. 

Words, pupils' difficulties with, 
84, 85, 102, 103. 



RIVERSIDE EDUCATIONAL 
MONOGRAPHS 

GENERAL EDUCATIONAL THEORY 

Dkwet's MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION .36 

Eliot's EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY 35 

Eliot's CONCRETE AND PRACTICAL IN MODERN EDUCATION .... 36 

Emerson's EDUCATION 36 

Fiske's THE MEANING OF INFANCY 36 

Hyde's THE TEACHER'S PHILOSOPHY 36 

Palmer's THE IDEAL TEACHER 36 

Palmer's TRADES AND PROFESSIONS 35 

Prosser's THE TEACHER AND OLD AGE 60 

JTerman's THE TEACHER'S HEALTH 60 

Thorndike's INDIVIDUALITY 36 

ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS 

Betts's NEW IDEALS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 60 

Bloomfield's VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE OF YOUTH 60 

Cabot's VOLUNTEER HELP TO THE SCHOOLS 60 

Cole's INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 36 

Cibberley's CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION 35 

Cubberley's THE IMPROVEMENT OF RURAL SCHOOLS 36 

Lewis's DEMOCRACY'S HIGH SCHOOL 60 

Perry's STATUS OF THE TEACHER 36 

Snedden's THE PROBLEM OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 36 

Trowbridge's THE HOME SCHOOL 60 

"Weeks's THE PEOPLE'S SCHOOL 60 

METHODS OF TEACHING 

Bailey's ART EDUCATION... 60 

Betts's THE RECITATION 60 

Campagxacs THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION 35 

Cooley's LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE GRADES 36 

Dewey's INTEREST AND EFFORT IN EDUCATION 60 

Earhart's TEACHING CHILDREN TO STUDY 60 

Evans's THE TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATIC8 36 

Fairchild's THE TEACHING OF POETRY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 60 

Freeman's THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 60 

Haliburton and Smith's TEACHING POETRY IN THE GRADES 60 

Hartwell's THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 36 

Haynes's ECONOMICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL 60 

Hill's THE TEACHING OF CIVICS 60 

Kilpatrick's THE MONTESSORI SYSTEM EXAMINED 35 

Palmer's ETHICAL AND MORAL INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS.. 35 

Palmer's SELF-CULTIVATION IN ENGLISH 38 

Suzzallo's THE TEACHING OF PRIMARY ARITHMETIC 60 

Sjtzzallos THE TEACHING OF SPELLING CO 

IQl6 



RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS^V 
IN EDUCATION 

Edited by Ellwood P. Cubberley, Head of the 
Department of Education, Leland Stanford, Jr., University. 

The editor and the publishers have most carefully planned 
this series to meet the needs of students of education in 
colleges and universities, in normal schools, and in teachers' 
training courses in high schools. 1'he books will also be 
equally well adapted to teachers' reading circles and to the 
wide-awake, professionally ambitious superintendent and 
teacher. Each book presented in the series will embody the 
results of the latest research, and will be at the same time 
both scientifically accurate, and simple, clear, and interest- 
ing in style. 

The Riverside Textbooks in Education will eventually 
contain books on the following subjects : — 

I. History of Education. — 2. Public Education in Amer- 
ica. — 3. Theory of Education. — 4. Principles of Teaching. 

— 5. School and Class Management. — 6. School Hygiene. 

— 7. School Administration. — 8. Secondary Education. — 
9. Educational Psychology. — 10. Educational Sociology. 

— 11. The Curriculum. — 12. Special Methods. 

Now Ready 
♦RURAL LIFE AND EDUCATION. 

By Ellwood P. Cubberley. $1.50 net. Postpaid. Illustrated. 

♦THE HYGIENE OF THE SCHOOL CHILD. 

By Lewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education, Leland 
Stanford Junior University. $i.6$net. Postpaid. Illustrated. 

•THE EVOLUTION OF THE EDUCATIONAL 
IDEAL. 

By Mabel Irene Emerson, First Assistant in Charge, Georgf 
Bancroft School, Boston. $1.00 net. Postpaid. 

♦HEALTH WORK IN THE SCHOOLS. 

By Ernest B. Hoag, Medical Director, Long Beach City Schools, 
California, and Lewis M. Terman. Illustrated. $1.60 net. Post* 
paid. 

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

1119 






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